CTA.bib

@article{haroon2022,
	title = {YouTube, The Great Radicalizer? Auditing and Mitigating Ideological Biases in YouTube Recommendations},
	author = {Haroon, Muhammad and Chhabra, Anshuman and Liu, Xin and Mohapatra, Prasant and Shafiq, Zubair and Wojcieszak, Magdalena},
	year = {2022},
	date = {2022},
	doi = {10.48550/ARXIV.2203.10666},
	url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.10666}
}

@article{brooke2021trouble,
  title={Trouble in programmer’s paradise: gender-biases in sharing and recognising technical knowledge on Stack Overflow},
  author={Brooke, SJ},
  journal={Information, Communication \& Society},
  volume={24},
  number={14},
  pages={2091--2112},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Taylor \& Francis}
}

@book{silge_text_2017,
	address = {London},
	title = {Text {Mining} with {R}: {A} {Tidy} {Approach}},
	publisher = {O'Reilly},
	author = {Silge, Julia and Robinson, David},
	year = {2017},
}

@book{wickham_r_2017,
	address = {London},
	title = {R for {Data} {Science}},
	publisher = {O'Reilly Media},
	author = {Wickham, Hadley and Grolemund, Garrett},
	year = {2017},
}

@article{zhang_casm_2019,
	title = {{CASM}: {A} {Deep}-{Learning} {Approach} for {Identifying} {Collective} {Action} {Events} with {Text} and {Image} {Data} from {Social} {Media}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0081-1750},
	shorttitle = {{CASM}},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1177/0081175019860244},
	doi = {10.1177/0081175019860244},
	abstract = {Protest event analysis is an important method for the study of collective action and social movements and typically draws on traditional media reports as the data source. We introduce collective action from social media (CASM)—a system that uses convolutional neural networks on image data and recurrent neural networks with long short-term memory on text data in a two-stage classifier to identify social media posts about offline collective action. We implement CASM on Chinese social media data and identify more than 100,000 collective action events from 2010 to 2017 (CASM-China). We evaluate the performance of CASM through cross-validation, out-of-sample validation, and comparisons with other protest data sets. We assess the effect of online censorship and find it does not substantially limit our identification of events. Compared to other protest data sets, CASM-China identifies relatively more rural, land-related protests and relatively few collective action events related to ethnic and religious conflict.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-04-01},
	journal = {Sociological Methodology},
	author = {Zhang, Han and Pan, Jennifer},
	month = aug,
	year = {2019},
	note = {Publisher: SAGE Publications Inc},
	keywords = {China, collective action, deep learning, event data, social media},
	pages = {1--57},
	file = {SAGE PDF Full Text:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/D6KI7SW8/Zhang and Pan - 2019 - CASM A Deep-Learning Approach for Identifying Col.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{garg_word_2018,
	title = {Word embeddings quantify 100 years of gender and ethnic stereotypes},
	volume = {115},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1720347115},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1720347115},
	abstract = {Word embeddings are a powerful machine-learning framework that represents each English word by a vector. The geometric relationship between these vectors captures meaningful semantic relationships between the corresponding words. In this paper, we develop a framework to demonstrate how the temporal dynamics of the embedding helps to quantify changes in stereotypes and attitudes toward women and ethnic minorities in the 20th and 21st centuries in the United States. We integrate word embeddings trained on 100 y of text data with the US Census to show that changes in the embedding track closely with demographic and occupation shifts over time. The embedding captures societal shifts—e.g., the women’s movement in the 1960s and Asian immigration into the United States—and also illuminates how specific adjectives and occupations became more closely associated with certain populations over time. Our framework for temporal analysis of word embedding opens up a fruitful intersection between machine learning and quantitative social science.},
	language = {en},
	number = {16},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Garg, Nikhil and Schiebinger, Londa and Jurafsky, Dan and Zou, James},
	month = apr,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {E3635--E3644},
	file = {Garg et al. - 2018 - Word embeddings quantify 100 years of gender and e.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/WLDJM4VD/Garg et al. - 2018 - Word embeddings quantify 100 years of gender and e.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{martins_rise_2020,
	title = {The rise of prosociality in fiction preceded democratic revolutions in {Early} {Modern} {Europe}},
	volume = {117},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.2009571117},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.2009571117},
	abstract = {The English and French Revolutions represent a turning point in history, marking the beginning of the modern rise of democracy. Recent advances in cultural evolution have put forward the idea that the early modern revolutions may be the product of a long-term psychological shift, from hierarchical and dominance-based interactions to democratic and trust-based relationships. In this study, we tested this hypothesis by analyzing theater plays during the early modern period in England and France. We found an increase in cooperation-related words over time relative to dominance-related words in both countries. Furthermore, we found that the accelerated rise of cooperation-related words preceded both the English Civil War (1642) and the French Revolution (1789). Finally, we found that rising per capita gross domestic product (GDPpc) generally led to an increase in cooperation-related words. These results highlight the likely role of long-term psychological and economic changes in explaining the rise of early modern democracies.},
	language = {en},
	number = {46},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Martins, Mauricio de Jesus Dias and Baumard, Nicolas},
	month = nov,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {28684--28691},
	file = {Martins and Baumard - 2020 - The rise of prosociality in fiction preceded democ.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/PCHY9NR6/Martins and Baumard - 2020 - The rise of prosociality in fiction preceded democ.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{king_how_2013,
	title = {How {Censorship} in {China} {Allows} {Government} {Criticism} but {Silences} {Collective} {Expression}},
	volume = {107},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {King, Gary and Pan, Jennifer and Roberts, Margaret E},
	year = {2013},
	pages = {18},
	file = {King et al. - 2013 - How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticis.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5X8CYLV9/King et al. - 2013 - How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticis.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{molina_machine_2019,
	title = {Machine {Learning} for {Sociology}},
	volume = {45},
	abstract = {Machine learning is a field at the intersection of statistics and computer science that uses algorithms to extract information and knowledge from data. Its applications increasingly find their way into economics, political science, and sociology. We offer a brief introduction to this vast toolbox and illustrate its current uses in the social sciences, including distilling measures from new data sources, such as text and images; characterizing population heterogeneity; improving causal inference; and offering predictions to aid policy decisions and theory development. We argue that, in addition to serving similar purposes in sociology, machine learning tools can speak to long-standing questions on the limitations of the linear modeling framework, the criteria for evaluating empirical findings, transparency around the context of discovery, and the epistemological core of the discipline.},
	language = {en},
	journal = {Annual Review of Sociology},
	author = {Molina, Mario and Garip, Filiz},
	year = {2019},
	pages = {27--45},
	file = {Molina and Garip - 2019 - Machine Learning for Sociology.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/RGWG3MTM/Molina and Garip - 2019 - Machine Learning for Sociology.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{evans_machine_2016,
	title = {Machine {Translation}: {Mining} {Text} for {Social} {Theory}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0360-0572, 1545-2115},
	shorttitle = {Machine {Translation}},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-soc-081715-074206},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-soc-081715-074206},
	abstract = {More of the social world lives within electronic text than ever before, from collective activity on the web, social media, and instant messaging to online transactions, government intelligence, and digitized libraries. This supply of text has elicited demand for natural language processing and machine learning tools to filter, search, and translate text into valuable data. We survey some of the most exciting computational approaches to text analysis, highlighting both supervised methods that extend old theories to new data and unsupervised techniques that discover hidden regularities worth theorizing. We then review recent research that uses these tools to develop social insight by exploring (a) collective attention and reasoning through the content of communication; (b) social relationships through the process of communication; and (c) social states, roles, and moves identified through heterogeneous signals within communication. We highlight social questions for which these advances could offer powerful new insight.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Annual Review of Sociology},
	author = {Evans, James A. and Aceves, Pedro},
	month = jul,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {21--50},
	file = {Evans and Aceves - 2016 - Machine Translation Mining Text for Social Theory.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5GCJ5JKM/Evans and Aceves - 2016 - Machine Translation Mining Text for Social Theory.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{king_how_2017,
	title = {How the news media activate public expression and influence national agendas},
	volume = {358},
	language = {en},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {King, Gary and Schneer, Benjamin and White, Ariel},
	year = {2017},
	pages = {776--780},
	file = {King et al. - 2017 - How the news media activate public expression and .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/HS6WULJD/King et al. - 2017 - How the news media activate public expression and .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{woodward_quantitative_1934,
	title = {Quantitative {Newspaper} {Analysis} as a {Technique} of {Opinion} {Research}},
	volume = {12},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Social Forces},
	author = {Woodward, Julian L},
	year = {1934},
	pages = {526--537},
	file = {Woodward - 2021 - Quantitative Newspaper Analysis as a Technique of .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/FTPF26RW/Woodward - 2021 - Quantitative Newspaper Analysis as a Technique of .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{michel_quantitative_2011,
	title = {Quantitative {Analysis} of {Culture} {Using} {Millions} of {Digitized} {Books}},
	volume = {331},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1199644},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1199644},
	language = {en},
	number = {6014},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Michel, J.-B. and Shen, Y. K. and Aiden, A. P. and Veres, A. and Gray, M. K. and {The Google Books Team} and Pickett, J. P. and Hoiberg, D. and Clancy, D. and Norvig, P. and Orwant, J. and Pinker, S. and Nowak, M. A. and Aiden, E. L.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {176--182},
	file = {Michel et al. - 2011 - Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CRI4G4GA/Michel et al. - 2011 - Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{denny_text_nodate,
	title = {Text {Preprocessing} {For} {Unsupervised} {Learning}: {Why} {It} {Matters}, {When} {It} {Misleads}, {And} {What} {To} {Do} {About} {It}},
	abstract = {Despite the popularity of unsupervised techniques for political science text-as-data research, the importance and implications of preprocessing decisions in this domain have received scant systematic attention. Yet, as we show, such decisions have profound effects on the results of real models for real data. We argue that substantive theory is typically too vague to be of use for feature selection, and that the supervised literature is not necessarily a helpful source of advice. To aid researchers working in unsupervised settings, we introduce a statistical procedure and software that examines the sensitivity of findings under alternate preprocessing regimes. This approach complements a researcher’s substantive understanding of a problem by providing a characterization of the variability changes in preprocessing choices may induce when analyzing a particular dataset. In making scholars aware of the degree to which their results are likely to be sensitive to their preprocessing decisions, it aids replication efforts.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Denny, Matthew J and Spirling, Arthur},
	pages = {22},
	file = {Denny and Spirling - Text Preprocessing For Unsupervised Learning Why .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AKW5ZZ9M/Denny and Spirling - Text Preprocessing For Unsupervised Learning Why .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kozlowski_geometry_2019,
	title = {The {Geometry} of {Culture}: {Analyzing} the {Meanings} of {Class} through {Word} {Embeddings}},
	volume = {84},
	issn = {0003-1224, 1939-8271},
	shorttitle = {The {Geometry} of {Culture}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0003122419877135},
	doi = {10.1177/0003122419877135},
	abstract = {We argue word embedding models are a useful tool for the study of culture using a historical analysis of shared understandings of social class as an empirical case. Word embeddings represent semantic relations between words as relationships between vectors in a highdimensional space, specifying a relational model of meaning consistent with contemporary theories of culture. Dimensions induced by word differences (rich – poor) in these spaces correspond to dimensions of cultural meaning, and the projection of words onto these dimensions reflects widely shared associations, which we validate with surveys. Analyzing text from millions of books published over 100 years, we show that the markers of class continuously shifted amidst the economic transformations of the twentieth century, yet the basic cultural dimensions of class remained remarkably stable. The notable exception is education, which became tightly linked to affluence independent of its association with cultivated taste.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {American Sociological Review},
	author = {Kozlowski, Austin C. and Taddy, Matt and Evans, James A.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {905--949},
	file = {Kozlowski et al. - 2019 - The Geometry of Culture Analyzing the Meanings of.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/NY9GBZ3Q/Kozlowski et al. - 2019 - The Geometry of Culture Analyzing the Meanings of.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{edelmann_computational_2020,
	title = {Computational {Social} {Science} and {Sociology}},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {0360-0572, 1545-2115},
	url = {https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054621},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054621},
	abstract = {The integration of social science with computer science and engineering fields has produced a new area of study: computational social science. This field applies computational methods to novel sources of digital data such as social media, administrative records, and historical archives to develop theories of human behavior. We review the evolution of this field within sociology via bibliometric analysis and in-depth analysis of the following subfields where this new work is appearing most rapidly: (a) social network analysis and group formation; (b) collective behavior and political sociology; (c) the sociology of knowledge; (d) cultural sociology, social psychology, and emotions; (e) the production of culture; ( f ) economic sociology and organizations; and (g) demography and population studies. Our review reveals that sociologists are not only at the center of cutting-edge research that addresses longstanding questions about human behavior but also developing new lines of inquiry about digital spaces as well. We conclude by discussing challenging new obstacles in the field, calling for increased attention to sociological theory, and identifying new areas where computational social science might be further integrated into mainstream sociology.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Annual Review of Sociology},
	author = {Edelmann, Achim and Wolff, Tom and Montagne, Danielle and Bail, Christopher A.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {61--81},
	file = {Edelmann et al. - 2020 - Computational Social Science and Sociology.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/HG4HFENY/Edelmann et al. - 2020 - Computational Social Science and Sociology.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{chen_impact_2019,
	title = {The {Impact} of {Media} {Censorship}: 1984 or {Brave} {New} {World}?},
	volume = {109},
	issn = {0002-8282},
	shorttitle = {The {Impact} of {Media} {Censorship}},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/aer.20171765},
	doi = {10.1257/aer.20171765},
	abstract = {Media censorship is a hallmark of authoritarian regimes. We conduct a field experiment in China to measure the effects of providing citizens with access to an uncensored internet. We track subjects’ media consumption, beliefs regarding the media, economic beliefs, political attitudes, and behaviors over 18 months. We find four main results: (i) free access alone does not induce subjects to acquire politically sensitive information; (ii) temporary encouragement leads to a persistent increase in acquisition, indicating that demand is not permanently low; (iii) acquisition brings broad, substantial, and persistent changes to knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and intended behaviors; and (iv) social transmission of information is statistically significant but small in magnitude. We calibrate a simple model to show that the combination of low demand for uncensored information and the moderate social transmission means China’s censorship apparatus may remain robust to a large number of citizens receiving access to an uncensored internet. (JEL C93, D72, D83, L82, L86, L88, P36)},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {American Economic Review},
	author = {Chen, Yuyu and Yang, David Y.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {2294--2332},
	file = {Chen and Yang - 2019 - The Impact of Media Censorship 1984 or Brave New .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/Z6PD7WLH/Chen and Yang - 2019 - The Impact of Media Censorship 1984 or Brave New .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lansdall-welfare_content_2017,
	title = {Content analysis of 150 years of {British} periodicals},
	volume = {114},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1606380114},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1606380114},
	abstract = {Previous studies have shown that it is possible to detect macroscopic patterns of cultural change over periods of centuries by analyzing large textual time series, specifically digitized books. This method promises to empower scholars with a quantitative and data-driven tool to study culture and society, but its power has been limited by the use of data from books and simple analytics based essentially on word counts. This study addresses these problems by assembling a vast corpus of regional newspapers from the United Kingdom, incorporating very fine-grained geographical and temporal information that is not available for books. The corpus spans 150 years and is formed by millions of articles, representing 14\% of all British regional outlets of the period. Simple content analysis of this corpus allowed us to detect specific events, like wars, epidemics, coronations, or conclaves, with high accuracy, whereas the use of more refined techniques from artificial intelligence enabled us to move beyond counting words by detecting references to named entities. These techniques allowed us to observe both a systematic underrepresentation and a steady increase of women in the news during the 20th century and the change of geographic focus for various concepts. We also estimate the dates when electricity overtook steam and trains overtook horses as a means of transportation, both around the year 1900, along with observing other cultural transitions. We believe that these data-driven approaches can complement the traditional method of close reading in detecting trends of continuity and change in historical corpora.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Lansdall-Welfare, Thomas and Sudhahar, Saatviga and Thompson, James and Lewis, Justin and {FindMyPast Newspaper Team} and Cristianini, Nello},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {E457--E465},
	file = {Lansdall-Welfare et al. - 2017 - Content analysis of 150 years of British periodica.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/2LK2ANME/Lansdall-Welfare et al. - 2017 - Content analysis of 150 years of British periodica.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{theocharis_computational_2021,
	title = {Computational {Social} {Science} and the {Study} of {Political} {Communication}},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {1058-4609, 1091-7675},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1833121},
	doi = {10.1080/10584609.2020.1833121},
	abstract = {The challenge of disentangling political communication processes and their effects has grown with the complexity of the new political information environment. But so have scientists’ toolsets and capa­ cities to better study and understand them. We map the challenges and opportunities of developing, synthesizing, and applying data collection and analysis techniques relying primarily on computational methods and tools to answer substantive theory-driven questions in the field of political communication. We foreground the theoretical, empirical, and institutional opportunities and challenges of Computational Communication Science (CCS) that are relevant to the political communication community. We also assess understand­ ings of CCS and highlight challenges associated with data and resource requirements, as well as those connected with the theory and semantics of digital signals. With an eye to existing practices, we elaborate on the key role of infrastructures, academic institutions, ethics, and training in computational methods. Finally, we present the six full articles and two forum contributions of this special issue illustrating methodological innovation, as well as the theoretical, practical, and institutional relevance and challenges for realizing the potential of computational methods in political communication.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1-2},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Political Communication},
	author = {Theocharis, Yannis and Jungherr, Andreas},
	month = mar,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {1--22},
	file = {Theocharis and Jungherr - 2021 - Computational Social Science and the Study of Poli.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/3KVBEXRC/Theocharis and Jungherr - 2021 - Computational Social Science and the Study of Poli.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rodriguez_models_2021,
	title = {Models for {Context}-{Specific} {Description} and {Inference} in {Political} {Science}},
	url = {https://github.com/prodriguezsosa/EmbeddingRegression},
	abstract = {Political scientists commonly seek to make statements about how a word’s use and meaning varies over circumstances—whether that be time, partisan identity, or some other document-level covariate. A promising avenue is the use of domain-specific word embeddings, that simultaneously allow for statements of uncertainty and statistical inference. We introduce the `a la Carte on Text (ConText) embedding regression model for this purpose. We extend and validate a simple model-based linear method of refitting pre-trained embeddings to local contexts that requires minimal input data. It outperforms well-known competitors for studying changes in meaning across groups and time. Our approach allows us to speak descriptively of systematic differences across covariates in the way that words are used, and to comment on whether a particular use is statistically significantly different to another. We provide evidence of excellent relative performance of the model, and show how it might be used in substantive research.},
	language = {en},
	journal = {Working paper},
	author = {Rodriguez, Pedro L and Spirling, Arthur and Stewart, Brandon M},
	year = {2021},
	pages = {1--43},
	file = {Rodriguez et al. - Models for Context-Specific Description and Inferen.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/KDELNJLE/Rodriguez et al. - Models for Context-Specific Description and Inferen.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{khodak_carte_2018,
	title = {A {La} {Carte} {Embedding}: {Cheap} but {Effective} {Induction} of {Semantic} {Feature} {Vectors}},
	shorttitle = {A {La} {Carte} {Embedding}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1805.05388},
	abstract = {Motivations like domain adaptation, transfer learning, and feature learning have fueled interest in inducing embeddings for rare or unseen words, n-grams, synsets, and other textual features. This paper introduces a` la carte embedding, a simple and general alternative to the usual word2vec-based approaches for building such representations that is based upon recent theoretical results for GloVe-like embeddings. Our method relies mainly on a linear transformation that is efficiently learnable using pretrained word vectors and linear regression. This transform is applicable “on the fly” in the future when a new text feature or rare word is encountered, even if only a single usage example is available. We introduce a new dataset showing how the a` la carte method requires fewer examples of words in context to learn high-quality embeddings and we obtain state-of-the-art results on a nonce task and some unsupervised document classification tasks.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {arXiv:1805.05388 [cs]},
	author = {Khodak, Mikhail and Saunshi, Nikunj and Liang, Yingyu and Ma, Tengyu and Stewart, Brandon and Arora, Sanjeev},
	month = may,
	year = {2018},
	note = {arXiv: 1805.05388},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Artificial Intelligence, Computer Science - Computation and Language},
	file = {Khodak et al. - 2018 - A La Carte Embedding Cheap but Effective Inductio.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/EUU68IKF/Khodak et al. - 2018 - A La Carte Embedding Cheap but Effective Inductio.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{pennington_glove_2014,
	title = {{GloVe}: {Global} {Vectors} for {Word} {Representation}},
	abstract = {Recent methods for learning vector space representations of words have succeeded in capturing fine-grained semantic and syntactic regularities using vector arithmetic, but the origin of these regularities has remained opaque. We analyze and make explicit the model properties needed for such regularities to emerge in word vectors. The result is a new global logbilinear regression model that combines the advantages of the two major model families in the literature: global matrix factorization and local context window methods. Our model efficiently leverages statistical information by training only on the nonzero elements in a word-word cooccurrence matrix, rather than on the entire sparse matrix or on individual context windows in a large corpus. The model produces a vector space with meaningful substructure, as evidenced by its performance of 75\% on a recent word analogy task. It also outperforms related models on similarity tasks and named entity recognition.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Pennington, Jeffrey and Socher, Richard and Manning, Christopher D},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {12},
	file = {Pennington et al. - GloVe Global Vectors for Word Representation.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/DNEARQ54/Pennington et al. - GloVe Global Vectors for Word Representation.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mikolov_efficient_2013,
	title = {Efficient {Estimation} of {Word} {Representations} in {Vector} {Space}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1301.3781},
	abstract = {We propose two novel model architectures for computing continuous vector representations of words from very large data sets. The quality of these representations is measured in a word similarity task, and the results are compared to the previously best performing techniques based on different types of neural networks. We observe large improvements in accuracy at much lower computational cost, i.e. it takes less than a day to learn high quality word vectors from a 1.6 billion words data set. Furthermore, we show that these vectors provide state-of-the-art performance on our test set for measuring syntactic and semantic word similarities.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {arXiv:1301.3781 [cs]},
	author = {Mikolov, Tomas and Chen, Kai and Corrado, Greg and Dean, Jeffrey},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	note = {arXiv: 1301.3781},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language},
	file = {Mikolov et al. - 2013 - Efficient Estimation of Word Representations in Ve.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CMTTJ9FW/Mikolov et al. - 2013 - Efficient Estimation of Word Representations in Ve.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mikolov_distributed_nodate,
	title = {Distributed {Representations} of {Words} and {Phrases} and their {Compositionality}},
	abstract = {The recently introduced continuous Skip-gram model is an efficient method for learning high-quality distributed vector representations that capture a large number of precise syntactic and semantic word relationships. In this paper we present several extensions that improve both the quality of the vectors and the training speed. By subsampling of the frequent words we obtain significant speedup and also learn more regular word representations. We also describe a simple alternative to the hierarchical softmax called negative sampling.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Mikolov, Tomas and Sutskever, Ilya and Chen, Kai and Corrado, Greg S and Dean, Jeff},
	pages = {9},
	file = {Mikolov et al. - Distributed Representations of Words and Phrases a.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/DBDNP2LD/Mikolov et al. - Distributed Representations of Words and Phrases a.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{ruder_survey_2019,
	title = {A {Survey} of {Cross}-lingual {Word} {Embedding} {Models}},
	volume = {65},
	issn = {1076-9757},
	url = {https://jair.org/index.php/jair/article/view/11640},
	doi = {10.1613/jair.1.11640},
	abstract = {Cross-lingual representations of words enable us to reason about word meaning in multilingual contexts and are a key facilitator of cross-lingual transfer when developing natural language processing models for low-resource languages. In this survey, we provide a comprehensive typology of cross-lingual word embedding models. We compare their data requirements and objective functions. The recurring theme of the survey is that many of the models presented in the literature optimize for the same objectives, and that seemingly different models are often equivalent, modulo optimization strategies, hyper-parameters, and such. We also discuss the different ways cross-lingual word embeddings are evaluated, as well as future challenges and research horizons.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research},
	author = {Ruder, Sebastian and Vulić, Ivan and Søgaard, Anders},
	month = aug,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {569--631},
	file = {Ruder et al. - 2019 - A Survey of Cross-lingual Word Embedding Models.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/TF9RGTP5/Ruder et al. - 2019 - A Survey of Cross-lingual Word Embedding Models.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{soliman_aravec_2017,
	title = {{AraVec}: {A} set of {Arabic} {Word} {Embedding} {Models} for use in {Arabic} {NLP}},
	volume = {117},
	issn = {18770509},
	shorttitle = {{AraVec}},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877050917321749},
	doi = {10.1016/j.procs.2017.10.117},
	abstract = {Advancements in neural networks have led to developments in fields like computer vision, speech recognition and natural language processing (NLP). One of the most influential recent developments in NLP is the use of word embeddings, where words are represented as vectors in a continuous space, capturing many syntactic and semantic relations among them. AraVec is a pre-trained distributed word representation (word embedding) open source project which aims to provide the Arabic NLP research community with free to use and powerful word embedding models. The first version of AraVec provides six different word embedding models built on top of three different Arabic content domains; Tweets, World Wide Web pages and Wikipedia Arabic articles. The total number of tokens used to build the models amounts to more than 3,300,000,000. This paper describes the resources used for building the models, the employed data cleaning techniques, the carried out preprocessing step, as well as the details of the employed word embedding creation techniques.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Procedia Computer Science},
	author = {Soliman, Abu Bakr and Eissa, Kareem and El-Beltagy, Samhaa R.},
	year = {2017},
	pages = {256--265},
	file = {Soliman et al. - 2017 - AraVec A set of Arabic Word Embedding Models for .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CA567FJP/Soliman et al. - 2017 - AraVec A set of Arabic Word Embedding Models for .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lucas_computer-assisted_2015,
	title = {Computer-{Assisted} {Text} {Analysis} for {Comparative} {Politics}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198700011736/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1093/pan/mpu019},
	abstract = {Recent advances in research tools for the systematic analysis of textual data are enabling exciting new research throughout the social sciences. For comparative politics, scholars who are often interested in non-English and possibly multilingual textual datasets, these advances may be difficult to access. This article discusses practical issues that arise in the processing, management, translation, and analysis of textual data with a particular focus on how procedures differ across languages. These procedures are combined in two applied examples of automated text analysis using the recently introduced Structural Topic Model. We also show how the model can be used to analyze data that have been translated into a single language via machine translation tools. All the methods we describe here are implemented in open-source software packages available from the authors.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Lucas, Christopher and Nielsen, Richard A. and Roberts, Margaret E. and Stewart, Brandon M. and Storer, Alex and Tingley, Dustin},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {254--277},
	file = {Lucas et al. - 2015 - Computer-Assisted Text Analysis for Comparative Po.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JZPIHVCL/Lucas et al. - 2015 - Computer-Assisted Text Analysis for Comparative Po.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{fouad_arwordvec_2020,
	title = {{ArWordVec}: efficient word embedding models for {Arabic} tweets},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {1433-7479},
	shorttitle = {{ArWordVec}},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s00500-019-04153-6},
	doi = {10.1007/s00500-019-04153-6},
	abstract = {One of the major advances in artificial intelligence nowadays is to understand, process and utilize the humans’ natural language. This has been achieved by employing the different natural language processing (NLP) techniques along with the aid of the various deep learning approaches and architectures. Using the distributed word representations to substitute the traditional bag-of-words approach has been utilized very efficiently in the last years for many NLP tasks. In this paper, we present the detailed steps of building a set of efficient word embedding models called ArWordVec that are generated from a huge repository of Arabic tweets. In addition, a new method for measuring Arabic word similarity is introduced that has been used in evaluating the performance of the generated ArWordVec models. The experimental results show that the performance of the ArWordVec models overcomes the recently available models on Arabic Twitter data for the word similarity task. In addition, two of the large Arabic tweets datasets are used to examine the performance of the proposed models in the multi-class sentiment analysis task. The results show that the proposed models are very efficient and help in achieving a classification accuracy ratio exceeding 73.86\% with a high average F1 value of 74.15.},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Soft Computing},
	author = {Fouad, Mohammed M. and Mahany, Ahmed and Aljohani, Naif and Abbasi, Rabeeh Ayaz and Hassan, Saeed-Ul},
	month = jun,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {8061--8068},
}

@article{vosoughi_spread_2018,
	title = {The spread of true and false news online},
	volume = {359},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aap9559},
	doi = {10.1126/science.aap9559},
	language = {en},
	number = {6380},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Vosoughi, Soroush and Roy, Deb and Aral, Sinan},
	month = mar,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {1146--1151},
	file = {Vosoughi et al. - 2018 - The spread of true and false news online.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/UKGFN234/Vosoughi et al. - 2018 - The spread of true and false news online.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{del_vicario_spreading_2016,
	title = {The spreading of misinformation online},
	volume = {113},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1517441113},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1517441113},
	abstract = {The wide availability of user-provided content in online social media facilitates the aggregation of people around common interests, worldviews, and narratives. However, the World Wide Web (WWW) also allows for the rapid dissemination of unsubstantiated rumors and conspiracy theories that often elicit rapid, large, but naive social responses such as the recent case of Jade Helm 15––where a simple military exercise turned out to be perceived as the beginning of a new civil war in the United States. In this work, we address the determinants governing misinformation spreading through a thorough quantitative analysis. In particular, we focus on how Facebook users consume information related to two distinct narratives: scientific and conspiracy news. We find that, although consumers of scientific and conspiracy stories present similar consumption patterns with respect to content, cascade dynamics differ. Selective exposure to content is the primary driver of content diffusion and generates the formation of homogeneous clusters, i.e., “echo chambers.” Indeed, homogeneity appears to be the primary driver for the diffusion of contents and each echo chamber has its own cascade dynamics. Finally, we introduce a data-driven percolation model mimicking rumor spreading and we show that homogeneity and polarization are the main determinants for predicting cascades’ size.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Del Vicario, Michela and Bessi, Alessandro and Zollo, Fabiana and Petroni, Fabio and Scala, Antonio and Caldarelli, Guido and Stanley, H. Eugene and Quattrociocchi, Walter},
	month = jan,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {554--559},
	file = {Del Vicario et al. - 2016 - The spreading of misinformation online.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/F2JHGE9P/Del Vicario et al. - 2016 - The spreading of misinformation online.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{allcott_social_2016,
	title = {Social {Media} and {Fake} {News} in the 2016 {Election}},
	volume = {31},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Journal of Economic Perspectives},
	author = {Allcott, Hunt and Gentzkow, Matthew},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {211--236},
	file = {Allcott and Gentzkow - Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/KE4QR9AL/Allcott and Gentzkow - Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{gentzkow_text_2019,
	title = {Text as {Data}},
	volume = {57},
	issn = {0022-0515},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/jel.20181020},
	doi = {10.1257/jel.20181020},
	abstract = {An ever-increasing share of human interaction, communication, and culture is recorded as digital text. We provide an introduction to the use of text as an input to economic research. We discuss the features that make text different from other forms of data, offer a practical overview of relevant statistical methods, and survey a variety of applications. (JEL C38, C55, L82, Z13)},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Journal of Economic Literature},
	author = {Gentzkow, Matthew and Kelly, Bryan and Taddy, Matt},
	month = sep,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {535--574},
	file = {Gentzkow et al. - 2019 - Text as Data.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/53LTPWK7/Gentzkow et al. - 2019 - Text as Data.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{levy_social_2021,
	title = {Social {Media}, {News} {Consumption}, and {Polarization}: {Evidence} from a {Field} {Experiment}},
	volume = {111},
	issn = {0002-8282},
	shorttitle = {Social {Media}, {News} {Consumption}, and {Polarization}},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/aer.20191777},
	doi = {10.1257/aer.20191777},
	abstract = {Does the consumption of ideologically congruent news on social media exacerbate polarization? I estimate the effects of social media news exposure by conducting a large field experiment randomly offering participants subscriptions to conservative or liberal news outlets on Facebook. I collect data on the causal chain of media effects: subscriptions to outlets, exposure to news on Facebook, visits to online news sites, and sharing of posts, as well as changes in political opinions and attitudes. Four main findings emerge. First, random variation in exposure to news on social media substantially affects the slant of news sites that individuals visit. Second, exposure to counter-attitudinal news decreases negative attitudes toward the opposing political party. Third, in contrast to the effect on attitudes, I find no evidence that the political leanings of news outlets affect political opinions. Fourth, Facebook’s algorithm is less likely to supply individuals with posts from counter-attitudinal outlets, conditional on individuals subscribing to them. Together, the results suggest that social media algorithms may limit exposure to counter-attitudinal news and thus increase polarization. (JEL C93, D72, L82)},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {American Economic Review},
	author = {Levy, Ro’ee},
	month = mar,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {831--870},
	file = {Levy - 2021 - Social Media, News Consumption, and Polarization .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/J6AVDVHA/Levy - 2021 - Social Media, News Consumption, and Polarization .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{iyengar_scientific_2019,
	title = {Scientific communication in a post-truth society},
	volume = {116},
	copyright = {© 2019 . https://www.pnas.org/site/aboutpnas/licenses.xhtmlPublished under the PNAS license.},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/116/16/7656},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1805868115},
	abstract = {Within the scientific community, much attention has focused on improving communications between scientists, policy makers, and the public. To date, efforts have centered on improving the content, accessibility, and delivery of scientific communications. Here we argue that in the current political and media environment faulty communication is no longer the core of the problem. Distrust in the scientific enterprise and misperceptions of scientific knowledge increasingly stem less from problems of communication and more from the widespread dissemination of misleading and biased information. We describe the profound structural shifts in the media environment that have occurred in recent decades and their connection to public policy decisions and technological changes. We explain how these shifts have enabled unscrupulous actors with ulterior motives increasingly to circulate fake news, misinformation, and disinformation with the help of trolls, bots, and respondent-driven algorithms. We document the high degree of partisan animosity, implicit ideological bias, political polarization, and politically motivated reasoning that now prevail in the public sphere and offer an actual example of how clearly stated scientific conclusions can be systematically perverted in the media through an internet-based campaign of disinformation and misinformation. We suggest that, in addition to attending to the clarity of their communications, scientists must also develop online strategies to counteract campaigns of misinformation and disinformation that will inevitably follow the release of findings threatening to partisans on either end of the political spectrum.},
	language = {en},
	number = {16},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Iyengar, Shanto and Massey, Douglas S.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2019},
	pmid = {30478050},
	note = {Publisher: National Academy of Sciences
Section: Colloquium Paper},
	keywords = {bias, communication, media, politics, science},
	pages = {7656--7661},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/MYAGBXBL/Iyengar and Massey - 2019 - Scientific communication in a post-truth society.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/VMEY94VZ/7656.html:text/html},
}

@article{allen_evaluating_2020,
	title = {Evaluating the fake news problem at the scale of the information ecosystem},
	volume = {6},
	copyright = {Copyright © 2020 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial License 4.0 (CC BY-NC).. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial license, which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, so long as the resultant use is not for commercial advantage and provided the original work is properly cited.},
	issn = {2375-2548},
	url = {https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/14/eaay3539},
	doi = {10.1126/sciadv.aay3539},
	abstract = {“Fake news,” broadly defined as false or misleading information masquerading as legitimate news, is frequently asserted to be pervasive online with serious consequences for democracy. Using a unique multimode dataset that comprises a nationally representative sample of mobile, desktop, and television consumption, we refute this conventional wisdom on three levels. First, news consumption of any sort is heavily outweighed by other forms of media consumption, comprising at most 14.2\% of Americans’ daily media diets. Second, to the extent that Americans do consume news, it is overwhelmingly from television, which accounts for roughly five times as much as news consumption as online. Third, fake news comprises only 0.15\% of Americans’ daily media diet. Our results suggest that the origins of public misinformedness and polarization are more likely to lie in the content of ordinary news or the avoidance of news altogether as they are in overt fakery.
Mainstream news, mainly on television, vastly outweighs fake news, and news itself is a small fraction of U.S. media consumption.
Mainstream news, mainly on television, vastly outweighs fake news, and news itself is a small fraction of U.S. media consumption.},
	language = {en},
	number = {14},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Science Advances},
	author = {Allen, Jennifer and Howland, Baird and Mobius, Markus and Rothschild, David and Watts, Duncan J.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2020},
	note = {Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science
Section: Research Article},
	pages = {eaay3539},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/9YJCAK5H/Allen et al. - 2020 - Evaluating the fake news problem at the scale of t.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8CBNX2S5/eaay3539.html:text/html},
}

@article{rheault_word_2020,
	title = {Word {Embeddings} for the {Analysis} of {Ideological} {Placement} in {Parliamentary} {Corpora}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/political-analysis/article/abs/word-embeddings-for-the-analysis-of-ideological-placement-in-parliamentary-corpora/017F0CEA9B3DB6E1B94AC36A509A8A7B},
	doi = {10.1017/pan.2019.26},
	abstract = {Word embeddings, the coefficients from neural network models predicting the use of words in context, have now become inescapable in applications involving natural language processing. Despite a few studies in political science, the potential of this methodology for the analysis of political texts has yet to be fully uncovered. This paper introduces models of word embeddings augmented with political metadata and trained on large-scale parliamentary corpora from Britain, Canada, and the United States. We fit these models with indicator variables of the party affiliation of members of parliament, which we refer to as party embeddings. We illustrate how these embeddings can be used to produce scaling estimates of ideological placement and other quantities of interest for political research. To validate the methodology, we assess our results against indicators from the Comparative Manifestos Project, surveys of experts, and measures based on roll-call votes. Our findings suggest that party embeddings are successful at capturing latent concepts such as ideology, and the approach provides researchers with an integrated framework for studying political language.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Rheault, Ludovic and Cochrane, Christopher},
	month = jan,
	year = {2020},
	note = {Publisher: Cambridge University Press},
	keywords = {natural language processing, parliamentary corpora, political ideology, text as data, word embeddings},
	pages = {112--133},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/49NE2WMP/017F0CEA9B3DB6E1B94AC36A509A8A7B.html:text/html},
}

@article{rodman_timely_2020,
	title = {A {Timely} {Intervention}: {Tracking} the {Changing} {Meanings} of {Political} {Concepts} with {Word} {Vectors}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	shorttitle = {A {Timely} {Intervention}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/political-analysis/article/abs/timely-intervention-tracking-the-changing-meanings-of-political-concepts-with-word-vectors/DDF3B5833A12E673EEE24FBD9798679E},
	doi = {10.1017/pan.2019.23},
	abstract = {Word vectorization is an emerging text-as-data method that shows great promise for automating the analysis of semantics—here, the cultural meanings of words—in large volumes of text. Yet successes with this method have largely been confined to massive corpora where the meanings of words are presumed to be fixed. In political science applications, however, many corpora are comparatively small and many interesting questions hinge on the recognition that meaning changes over time. Together, these two facts raise vexing methodological challenges. Can word vectors trace the changing cultural meanings of words in typical small corpora use cases? I test four time-sensitive implementations of word vectors (word2vec) against a gold standard developed from a modest data set of 161 years of newspaper coverage. I find that one implementation method clearly outperforms the others in matching human assessments of how public dialogues around equality in America have changed over time. In addition, I suggest best practices for using word2vec to study small corpora for time series questions, including bootstrap resampling of documents and pretraining of vectors. I close by showing that word2vec allows granular analysis of the changing meaning of words, an advance over other common text-as-data methods for semantic research questions.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Rodman, Emma},
	month = jan,
	year = {2020},
	note = {Publisher: Cambridge University Press},
	keywords = {analysis of political speech, automated content analysis, statistical analysis of texts, time series},
	pages = {87--111},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/DS7AUDS6/DDF3B5833A12E673EEE24FBD9798679E.html:text/html},
}

@article{toeppe_identification_2021,
	title = {Identification of {Biased} {Terms} in {News} {Articles} by {Comparison} of {Outlet}-{Specific} {Word} {Embeddings}},
	volume = {12646},
	url = {https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348303058},
	abstract = {Slanted news coverage, also called media bias, can heavily influence how news consumers interpret and react to the news. To automatically identify biased language, we present an exploratory approach that compares the context of related words. We train two word embedding models, one on texts of leftwing, the other on right-wing news outlets. Our hypothesis is that a word's representations in both word embedding spaces are more similar for non-biased words than biased words. The underlying idea is that the context of biased words in different news outlets varies more strongly than the one of non-biased words, since the perception of a word as being biased differs depending on its context. While we do not find statistical significance to accept the hypothesis, the results show the effectiveness of the approach. For example, after a linear mapping of both word embeddings spaces, 31\% of the words with the largest distances potentially induce bias. To improve the results, we find that the dataset needs to be significantly larger, and we derive further methodology as future research direction. To our knowledge, this paper presents the first in-depth look at the context of bias words measured by word embeddings.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	author = {Spinde, Timo and Rudnitckaia, Lada and Hamborg, Felix and Gipp, Bela},
	editor = {Toeppe, Katharina and Yan, Hui and Chu, Samuel Kai Wah},
	year = {2021},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-030-71305-8_17},
	note = {Series Title: Lecture Notes in Computer Science},
	pages = {215--224},
	file = {Spinde et al. - 2021 - Identification of Biased Terms in News Articles by.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/GN2EB6ZN/Spinde et al. - 2021 - Identification of Biased Terms in News Articles by.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{jones_stereotypical_2020,
	title = {Stereotypical {Gender} {Associations} in {Language} {Have} {Decreased} {Over} {Time}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {23306696},
	url = {https://www.sociologicalscience.com/articles-v7-1-1/},
	doi = {10.15195/v7.a1},
	abstract = {Using a corpus of millions of digitized books, we document the presence and trajectory over time of stereotypical gender associations in the written English language from 1800 to 2000. We employ the novel methodology of word embeddings to quantify male gender bias: the tendency to associate a domain with the male gender. We measure male gender bias in four stereotypically gendered domains: career, family, science, and arts. We found that stereotypical gender associations in language have decreased over time but still remain, with career and science terms demonstrating positive male gender bias and family and arts terms demonstrating negative male gender bias. We also seek evidence of changing associations corresponding to the second shift and find partial support. Traditional gender ideology is latent within the text of published English-language books, yet the magnitude of traditionally gendered associations appears to be decreasing over time.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Sociological Science},
	author = {Jones, Jason and Amin, Mohammad and Kim, Jessica and Skiena, Steven},
	year = {2020},
	pages = {1--35},
	file = {Jones et al. - 2020 - Stereotypical Gender Associations in Language Have.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/BE4CQVJI/Jones et al. - 2020 - Stereotypical Gender Associations in Language Have.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{stoltz_concept_2019,
	title = {Concept {Mover}’s {Distance}: measuring concept engagement via word embeddings in texts},
	volume = {2},
	issn = {2432-2717, 2432-2725},
	shorttitle = {Concept {Mover}’s {Distance}},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42001-019-00048-6},
	doi = {10.1007/s42001-019-00048-6},
	abstract = {We propose a method for measuring a text’s engagement with a focal concept using distributional representations of the meaning of words. More specifically, this measure relies on word mover’s distance, which uses word embeddings to determine similarities between two documents. In our approach, which we call Concept Mover’s Distance, a document is measured by the minimum distance the words in the document need to travel to arrive at the position of a “pseudo document” consisting of only words denoting a focal concept. This approach captures the prototypical structure of concepts, is fairly robust to pruning sparse terms as well as variation in text lengths within a corpus, and with pre-trained embeddings, can be used even when terms denoting concepts are absent from corpora and can be applied to bag-of-words datasets. We close by outlining some limitations of the proposed method as well as opportunities for future research.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Journal of Computational Social Science},
	author = {Stoltz, Dustin S. and Taylor, Marshall A.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {293--313},
	file = {Stoltz and Taylor - 2019 - Concept Mover’s Distance measuring concept engage.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/FI65FBMX/Stoltz and Taylor - 2019 - Concept Mover’s Distance measuring concept engage.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{arseniev-koehler_machine_2020,
	title = {Machine learning as a model for cultural learning: {Teaching} an algorithm what it means to be fat},
	shorttitle = {Machine learning as a model for cultural learning},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2003.12133},
	abstract = {As we navigate our cultural environment, we learn cultural biases, like those around gender, social class, health, and body weight. It is unclear, however, exactly how public culture becomes private culture. In this paper, we provide a theoretical account of such cultural learning. We propose that neural word embeddings provide a parsimonious and cognitively plausible model of the representations learned from natural language. Using neural word embeddings, we extract cultural schemata about body weight from New York Times articles. We identify several cultural schemata that link obesity to gender, immorality, poor health, and low socioeconomic class. Such schemata may be subtly but pervasively activated in public culture; thus, language can chronically reproduce biases. Our findings reinforce ongoing concerns that machine learning can also encode, and reproduce, harmful human biases.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {arXiv:2003.12133 [cs]},
	author = {Arseniev-Koehler, Alina and Foster, Jacob G.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2020},
	note = {arXiv: 2003.12133},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Computers and Society, Computer Science - Machine Learning},
	file = {Arseniev-Koehler and Foster - 2020 - Machine learning as a model for cultural learning.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AK8ZS2NK/Arseniev-Koehler and Foster - 2020 - Machine learning as a model for cultural learning.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hamilton_diachronic_2018,
	title = {Diachronic {Word} {Embeddings} {Reveal} {Statistical} {Laws} of {Semantic} {Change}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1605.09096},
	abstract = {Understanding how words change their meanings over time is key to models of language and cultural evolution, but historical data on meaning is scarce, making theories hard to develop and test. Word embeddings show promise as a diachronic tool, but have not been carefully evaluated. We develop a robust methodology for quantifying semantic change by evaluating word embeddings (PPMI, SVD, word2vec) against known historical changes. We then use this methodology to reveal statistical laws of semantic evolution. Using six historical corpora spanning four languages and two centuries, we propose two quantitative laws of semantic change: (i) the law of conformity—the rate of semantic change scales with an inverse power-law of word frequency; (ii) the law of innovation—independent of frequency, words that are more polysemous have higher rates of semantic change.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {arXiv:1605.09096 [cs]},
	author = {Hamilton, William L. and Leskovec, Jure and Jurafsky, Dan},
	month = oct,
	year = {2018},
	note = {arXiv: 1605.09096},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language},
	file = {Hamilton et al. - 2018 - Diachronic Word Embeddings Reveal Statistical Laws.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AYCGHHUV/Hamilton et al. - 2018 - Diachronic Word Embeddings Reveal Statistical Laws.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{giulianelli_analysing_2020,
	title = {Analysing {Lexical} {Semantic} {Change} with {Contextualised} {Word} {Representations}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2004.14118},
	doi = {10.18653/v1/2020.acl-main.365},
	abstract = {This paper presents the first unsupervised approach to lexical semantic change that makes use of contextualised word representations. We propose a novel method that exploits the BERT neural language model to obtain representations of word usages, clusters these representations into usage types, and measures change along time with three proposed metrics. We create a new evaluation dataset and show that the model representations and the detected semantic shifts are positively correlated with human judgements. Our extensive qualitative analysis demonstrates that our method captures a variety of synchronic and diachronic linguistic phenomena. We expect our work to inspire further research in this direction.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics},
	author = {Giulianelli, Mario and Del Tredici, Marco and Fernández, Raquel},
	year = {2020},
	note = {arXiv: 2004.14118},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Computers and Society},
	pages = {3960--3973},
	file = {Giulianelli et al. - 2020 - Analysing Lexical Semantic Change with Contextuali.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/QJ55QW5V/Giulianelli et al. - 2020 - Analysing Lexical Semantic Change with Contextuali.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{soni_abolitionist_2021,
	title = {Abolitionist {Networks}: {Modeling} {Language} {Change} in {Nineteenth}-{Century} {Activist} {Newspapers}},
	shorttitle = {Abolitionist {Networks}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2103.07538},
	abstract = {The abolitionist movement of the nineteenth-century United States remains among the most significant social and political movements in US history. Abolitionist newspapers played a crucial role in spreading information and shaping public opinion around a range of issues relating to the abolition of slavery. These newspapers also serve as a primary source of information about the movement for scholars today, resulting in powerful new accounts of the movement and its leaders. This paper supplements recent qualitative work on the role of women in abolition’s vanguard, as well as the role of the Black press, with a quantitative text modeling approach. Using diachronic word embeddings, we identify which newspapers tended to lead lexical semantic innovations — the introduction of new usages of specific words — and which newspapers tended to follow. We then aggregate the evidence across hundreds of changes into a weighted network with the newspapers as nodes; directed edge weights represent the frequency with which each newspaper led the other in the adoption of a lexical semantic change. Analysis of this network reveals pathways of lexical semantic influence, distinguishing leaders from followers, as well as others who stood apart from the semantic changes that swept through this period. More specifically, we find that two newspapers edited by women — THE PROVINCIAL FREEMAN and THE LILY — led a large number of semantic changes in our corpus, lending additional credence to the argument that a multiracial coalition of women led the abolitionist movement in terms of both thought and action. It also contributes additional complexity to the scholarship that has sought to tease apart the relation of the abolitionist movement to the women’s suffrage movement, and the vexed racial politics that characterized their relation.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {arXiv:2103.07538 [cs]},
	author = {Soni, Sandeep and Klein, Lauren and Eisenstein, Jacob},
	month = mar,
	year = {2021},
	note = {arXiv: 2103.07538},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Computers and Society, Computer Science - Digital Libraries, Computer Science - Social and Information Networks},
	file = {Soni et al. - 2021 - Abolitionist Networks Modeling Language Change in.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/4WNJYYVF/Soni et al. - 2021 - Abolitionist Networks Modeling Language Change in.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kulkarni_statistically_2014,
	title = {Statistically {Significant} {Detection} of {Linguistic} {Change}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1411.3315},
	abstract = {We propose a new computational approach for tracking and detecting statistically significant linguistic shifts in the meaning and usage of words. Such linguistic shifts are especially prevalent on the Internet, where the rapid exchange of ideas can quickly change a word’s meaning. Our meta-analysis approach constructs property time series of word usage, and then uses statistically sound change point detection algorithms to identify significant linguistic shifts. We consider and analyze three approaches of increasing complexity to generate such linguistic property time series, the culmination of which uses distributional characteristics inferred from word co-occurrences. Using recently proposed deep neural language models, we first train vector representations of words for each time period. Second, we warp the vector spaces into one unified coordinate system. Finally, we construct a distance-based distributional time series for each word to track it’s linguistic displacement over time.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {arXiv:1411.3315 [cs]},
	author = {Kulkarni, Vivek and Al-Rfou, Rami and Perozzi, Bryan and Skiena, Steven},
	month = nov,
	year = {2014},
	note = {arXiv: 1411.3315},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Machine Learning, Computer Science - Information Retrieval, H.3.3, I.2.6},
	file = {Kulkarni et al. - 2014 - Statistically Significant Detection of Linguistic .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/PIF9JAKI/Kulkarni et al. - 2014 - Statistically Significant Detection of Linguistic .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{kusner_word_2015,
	title = {From {Word} {Embeddings} {To} {Document} {Distances}},
	url = {http://proceedings.mlr.press/v37/kusnerb15.html},
	abstract = {We present the Word Mover’s Distance (WMD), a novel distance function between text documents. Our work is based on recent results in word embeddings that learn semantically meaningful representatio...},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	booktitle = {International {Conference} on {Machine} {Learning}},
	publisher = {PMLR},
	author = {Kusner, Matt and Sun, Yu and Kolkin, Nicholas and Weinberger, Kilian},
	month = jun,
	year = {2015},
	note = {ISSN: 1938-7228},
	pages = {957--966},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/V3JWT2YC/Kusner et al. - 2015 - From Word Embeddings To Document Distances.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/W6KS8A7A/kusnerb15.html:text/html},
}

@article{sia_tired_2020,
	title = {Tired of {Topic} {Models}? {Clusters} of {Pretrained} {Word} {Embeddings} {Make} for {Fast} and {Good} {Topics} too!},
	shorttitle = {Tired of {Topic} {Models}?},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2004.14914},
	abstract = {Topic models are a useful analysis tool to uncover the underlying themes within document collections. The dominant approach is to use probabilistic topic models that posit a generative story, but in this paper we propose an alternative way to obtain topics: clustering pretrained word embeddings while incorporating document information for weighted clustering and reranking top words. We provide benchmarks for the combination of different word embeddings and clustering algorithms, and analyse their performance under dimensionality reduction with PCA. The best performing combination for our approach performs as well as classical topic models, but with lower runtime and computational complexity.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-04-07},
	journal = {arXiv:2004.14914 [cs]},
	author = {Sia, Suzanna and Dalmia, Ayush and Mielke, Sabrina J.},
	month = oct,
	year = {2020},
	note = {arXiv: 2004.14914},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language},
	file = {Sia et al. - 2020 - Tired of Topic Models Clusters of Pretrained Word.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/2SW49AZI/Sia et al. - 2020 - Tired of Topic Models Clusters of Pretrained Word.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mcinnes_umap_2020,
	title = {{UMAP}: {Uniform} {Manifold} {Approximation} and {Projection} for {Dimension} {Reduction}},
	shorttitle = {{UMAP}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1802.03426},
	abstract = {UMAP (Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection) is a novel manifold learning technique for dimension reduction. UMAP is constructed from a theoretical framework based in Riemannian geometry and algebraic topology. The result is a practical scalable algorithm that applies to real world data. The UMAP algorithm is competitive with t-SNE for visualization quality, and arguably preserves more of the global structure with superior run time performance. Furthermore, UMAP has no computational restrictions on embedding dimension, making it viable as a general purpose dimension reduction technique for machine learning.},
	urldate = {2021-06-14},
	journal = {arXiv:1802.03426 [cs, stat]},
	author = {McInnes, Leland and Healy, John and Melville, James},
	month = sep,
	year = {2020},
	note = {arXiv: 1802.03426},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Machine Learning, Computer Science - Computational Geometry, Statistics - Machine Learning},
	file = {arXiv Fulltext PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/M39GAHT4/McInnes et al. - 2020 - UMAP Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projectio.pdf:application/pdf;arXiv.org Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/YZ2DTERL/1802.html:text/html},
}

@article{arora_linear_2018,
	title = {Linear {Algebraic} {Structure} of {Word} {Senses}, with {Applications} to {Polysemy}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1601.03764},
	abstract = {Word embeddings are ubiquitous in NLP and information retrieval, but it is unclear what they represent when the word is polysemous. Here it is shown that multiple word senses reside in linear superposition within the word embedding and simple sparse coding can recover vectors that approximately capture the senses. The success of our approach, which applies to several embedding methods, is mathematically explained using a variant of the random walk on discourses model (Arora et al., 2016). A novel aspect of our technique is that each extracted word sense is accompanied by one of about 2000 “discourse atoms” that gives a succinct description of which other words co-occur with that word sense. Discourse atoms can be of independent interest, and make the method potentially more useful. Empirical tests are used to verify and support the theory.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-07-01},
	journal = {arXiv:1601.03764 [cs, stat]},
	author = {Arora, Sanjeev and Li, Yuanzhi and Liang, Yingyu and Ma, Tengyu and Risteski, Andrej},
	month = dec,
	year = {2018},
	note = {arXiv: 1601.03764},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Machine Learning, Statistics - Machine Learning},
	file = {Arora et al. - 2018 - Linear Algebraic Structure of Word Senses, with Ap.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/6VH2EY5Y/Arora et al. - 2018 - Linear Algebraic Structure of Word Senses, with Ap.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rozado_using_2021,
	title = {Using word embeddings to probe sentiment associations of politically loaded terms in news and opinion articles from news media outlets},
	issn = {2432-2717, 2432-2725},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42001-021-00130-y},
	doi = {10.1007/s42001-021-00130-y},
	abstract = {This work describes an analysis of political associations in 27 million diachronic (1975–2019) news and opinion articles from 47 news media outlets popular in the United States. We use embedding models trained on individual outlets content to quantify outlet-specific latent associations between positive/negative sentiment words and terms loaded with political connotations such as those describing political orientation, party affiliation, names of influential politicians, and ideologically aligned public figures. We observe that both left- and right-leaning news media tend to associate positive sentiment words with terms used to refer to members of their own political in-group and negative sentiment words with terms used to denote members of their ideological outgroup. Outlets rated as centrist by humans display political associations that are often milder but similar in orientation to those of leftleaning news organizations. A weighted average of political associations by outlets’ readership volume hints that political associations embedded in left of center news outlets might have larger societal reach. A chronological analysis of political associations through time suggests that political sentiment polarization is increasing in both left- and right-leaning news media contents. Our approach for measuring sentiment associations of words denoting political orientation in outlet-specific embedding models correlates substantially with external human ratings of outlet ideological bias (r {\textgreater} 0.7). Yet, specific sentiment associations are sometimes multifaceted and challenging to interpret. Overall, our work signals the potential of machine learning models derived from news media language usage to quantify the ideological bias embedded in news outlet content.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-07-29},
	journal = {Journal of Computational Social Science},
	author = {Rozado, David and al-Gharbi, Musa},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	file = {Rozado and al-Gharbi - 2021 - Using word embeddings to probe sentiment associati.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/EH7ZA69M/Rozado and al-Gharbi - 2021 - Using word embeddings to probe sentiment associati.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{firth_studies_1957,
	address = {London},
	title = {Studies in linguistic analysis},
	publisher = {Wiley-Blackwell},
	author = {Firth, John Rupert},
	year = {1957},
}

@article{hamoud_egypts_2019,
	title = {Egypt’s {Military} {Coup} of 2013: {An} {Analysis} of the {Private} {Press} in 112 {Days}},
	volume = {9},
	issn = {2051-0861},
	shorttitle = {Egypt’s {Military} {Coup} of 2013},
	url = {https://journals.le.ac.uk/ojs1/index.php/nmes/article/view/3240},
	doi = {10.29311/nmes.v9i2.3240},
	abstract = {In July 2013, a widely celebrated military coup took place in Egypt – only two and a half years after the 2011 Revolution. This article investigates the hegemonic power of the private press owned by Egypt‟s business elite during the coup period. In the context of this research objective, this study answers the question of “how did Egypt‟s private press provide popular support to the 2013 military coup?” through following a critical approach and conducting framing analysis of news headlines in a period of 112 days. This article examines the popular privately-owned newspapers al-Masry al-Youm and al-Watan as the main case studies. Findings show that Egypt‟s business elite engaged in significant news framing in support of the 2013 military coup - for the purpose of maintaining their hegemonic position in the country. They particularly used the frame of “fear” (of the Muslim Brotherhood, potential violence and political chaos) and the frame of “promotion” by portraying the military as a saviour.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {New Middle Eastern Studies},
	author = {Hamoud, Maher},
	month = aug,
	year = {2019},
	file = {Hamoud - 2019 - Egypt’s Military Coup of 2013 An Analysis of the .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CUVCTVT9/Hamoud - 2019 - Egypt’s Military Coup of 2013 An Analysis of the .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{abdulla_navigating_2016,
	title = {Navigating the {Boundaries} {Between} {State} {Television} and {Public} {Broadcasting} in {Pre}- and {Post}-{Revolution} {Egypt}},
	abstract = {This article navigates the boundaries between state and media in times of transition by presenting a case study of the Egyptian Radio and Television Union (ERTU). Government-owned television has always been used for the interest of repressive regimes in Egypt, where the boundary between public service broadcasting (PSB) and state television has been blurry. ERTU has posed itself as public service media, although its allegiance remains to the state rather than to the people. The January 25, 2011, revolution was a chance for reform, but not much has changed. This article uses personal interviews and qualitative analysis of legal documents to examine ERTU’s legal framework, funding, diversity of content, and editorial independence. It analyzes the situation in terms of the current political context and makes recommendations for turning state television into PSB.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Abdulla, Rasha A},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {20},
	file = {Abdulla - 2016 - Navigating the Boundaries Between State Television.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/UHB97CG8/Abdulla - 2016 - Navigating the Boundaries Between State Television.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{moore-gilbert_authoritarian_nodate,
	title = {Authoritarian downgrading, (self)censorship and new media activism after the {Arab} {Spring}},
	abstract = {While considerable scholarly attention has focused on analysing the role and impact of new media during the Arab Spring uprisings of 2010–2011, comparatively little research has been devoted to examining how online activism has changed in response to the regime stabilisation measures undertaken by the governments which survived the unrest. Characterising the de-liberalisation policies of post–Arab Spring states as ‘authoritarian downgrading’, this article considers how the growing involvement of authoritarian regimes in online spaces is impacting activists’ use of new media technologies. Adopting Bahrain as a case study, we present the results of a survey of Bahraini political activists conducted in 2017 and consider whether activists’ perceptions of their online safety and security are impacting their use of new media through behaviours such as selfcensorship, the adoption of pseudonyms and the preferencing of direct messaging apps over Arab Spring-era social media platforms.},
	language = {en},
	journal = {new media},
	author = {Moore-Gilbert, Kylie and Abdul-Nabi, Zainab},
	pages = {19},
	file = {Moore-Gilbert and Abdul-Nabi - Authoritarian downgrading, (self)censorship and ne.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/WG9EEB6L/Moore-Gilbert and Abdul-Nabi - Authoritarian downgrading, (self)censorship and ne.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{el_issawi_shifting_2016,
	title = {Shifting journalistic roles in democratic transitions: {Lessons} from {Egypt}},
	volume = {17},
	issn = {1464-8849, 1741-3001},
	shorttitle = {Shifting journalistic roles in democratic transitions},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1464884915576732},
	doi = {10.1177/1464884915576732},
	abstract = {While in the case of the Arab Spring the focus of research and debate was very much on the role of social media in enabling political change both during the uprisings and in their immediate aftermath, the impact of traditional national mass media and journalism on framing this political change has been less addressed. In this article, we investigate the role of Egyptian journalists in shaping Egypt’s complex and fast-moving political transition. Based on a thematic analysis of in-depth interviews and a conceptual framework building on Christians et al.’s normative roles of the media, it can be concluded that the monitorial and facilitative roles, which were prevalent in the early stages of the post-Mubarak era, were quickly overturned in favor of a radical and collaborative role. Egyptian journalists working in private media thus demonized their political adversaries, mainly the Islamists, transforming this political ‘other’ into the ultimate enemy. At the same time, the new military regime was being revered and celebrated. This arguably contributed to further destabilize the fragile transition to democracy. It is furthermore concluded that for democracy to succeed in an Egyptian context, antagonistic political conflicts need to be transformed into agonistic ones both at the level of political culture and media culture.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journalism},
	author = {el Issawi, Fatima and Cammaerts, Bart},
	month = jul,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {549--566},
	file = {el Issawi and Cammaerts - 2016 - Shifting journalistic roles in democratic transiti.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/EZYDUL38/el Issawi and Cammaerts - 2016 - Shifting journalistic roles in democratic transiti.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{issawi_egyptian_2020,
	title = {Egyptian journalists and the struggle for change following the 2011 uprising: {The} ambiguous journalistic agency between change and conformity},
	volume = {82},
	issn = {1748-0485, 1748-0493},
	shorttitle = {Egyptian journalists and the struggle for change following the 2011 uprising},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1748048519897516},
	doi = {10.1177/1748048519897516},
	abstract = {The Egyptian media displayed a high level of content diversity in the final years of the Mubarak regime, prior to the 2011 uprising. This diversity expanded considerably after the uprising when national media embodied expressions of dissent with unprecedented openness, in defiance of the entrenched identity of the journalist as the regime’s guard. This article investigates the dynamics of journalistic agency in Egyptian newsrooms in search for a new identity, investigating the challenges, hopes and trade-offs of a painful process of change. It looks at the complex interplay between these agentic dynamics and inherited structures within an uncertain and highly contested transition to democracy, which finally collapsed into a new chapter of authoritarianism. The article argues that while journalistic agency helped support trends towards democratization in media and politics in the immediate aftermath of the uprising, it also acted as powerful platform in ‘othering’ opponents preparing the ground for the return of autocratic practices and ultimately the fall of the democratic experiment.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {International Communication Gazette},
	author = {Issawi, Fatima el},
	month = nov,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {628--645},
	file = {Issawi - 2020 - Egyptian journalists and the struggle for change f.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/M9LTG27T/Issawi - 2020 - Egyptian journalists and the struggle for change f.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{abdulla_egypts_nodate,
	title = {{EGYPT}’{S} {MEDIA} {IN} {THE} {MIDST} {OF} {REVOLUTION}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Abdulla, Rasha},
	pages = {46},
	file = {Abdulla - EGYPT’S MEDIA IN THE MIDST OF REVOLUTION.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/3SLXSVAW/Abdulla - EGYPT’S MEDIA IN THE MIDST OF REVOLUTION.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{douai_mapping_2016,
	address = {London},
	title = {Mapping the “{Arab} {Autumn}”: {A} {Framing} {Analysis} of {CBC} and {Al}-{Nahar} {Networks}’ {Coverage} of {Egypt}’s {Military} {Coup}},
	isbn = {978-1-137-58140-2 978-1-137-58141-9},
	shorttitle = {Mapping the “{Arab} {Autumn}”},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1057/978-1-137-58141-9_8},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	booktitle = {Mediated {Identities} and {New} {Journalism} in the {Arab} {World}},
	publisher = {Palgrave Macmillan UK},
	author = {Elmasry, Mohamad H. and Auter, Philip J. and Makady, Heidi},
	editor = {Douai, Aziz and Ben Moussa, Mohamed},
	year = {2016},
	doi = {10.1057/978-1-137-58141-9_8},
	pages = {143--163},
	file = {Elmasry et al. - 2016 - Mapping the “Arab Autumn” A Framing Analysis of C.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/SLPDW6EL/Elmasry et al. - 2016 - Mapping the “Arab Autumn” A Framing Analysis of C.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hafez_radically_2015,
	title = {Radically {Polarized} {Publics} and the {Demise} of {Media} {Freedom} in {Egypt}},
	issn = {1110-5097, 2090-7273},
	url = {http://journals.openedition.org/ema/3397},
	doi = {10.4000/ema.3397},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Égypte/Monde arabe},
	author = {Hafez, Kai},
	month = mar,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {37--49},
	file = {Hafez - 2015 - Radically Polarized Publics and the Demise of Medi.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/EQ22KCEJ/Hafez - 2015 - Radically Polarized Publics and the Demise of Medi.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{koob_egyptian-media-under-transition_nodate,
	title = {Egyptian-{Media}-{Under}-{Transition}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Koob, Marion},
	pages = {94},
	file = {Koob - Egyptian-Media-Under-Transition.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/2YAXC2AW/Koob - Egyptian-Media-Under-Transition.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hamdy_framing_2012,
	title = {Framing the {Egyptian} {Uprising} in {Arabic} {Language} {Newspapers} and {Social} {Media}},
	volume = {62},
	issn = {00219916},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/joc/article/62/2/195-211/4085781},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01637.x},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Communication},
	author = {Hamdy, Naila and Gomaa, Ehab H.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {195--211},
	file = {Hamdy and Gomaa - 2012 - Framing the Egyptian Uprising in Arabic Language N.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/H9HEUE9U/Hamdy and Gomaa - 2012 - Framing the Egyptian Uprising in Arabic Language N.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{radelet_rise_2015,
	title = {The {Rise} of the {World}’s {Poorest} {Countries}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1086-3214},
	url = {https://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal_of_democracy/v026/26.4.radelet.html},
	doi = {10.1353/jod.2015.0061},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Democracy},
	author = {Radelet, Steven},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {5--19},
	file = {Radelet - 2015 - The Rise of the World’s Poorest Countries.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/93DIHZ4F/Radelet - 2015 - The Rise of the World’s Poorest Countries.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hearns-branaman_effects_2020,
	title = {The effects of \textit{coups d’état} on journalists: {The} case of the 2014 {Thai} coup as both exemplary and exceptional},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0129-6612, 2377-6277},
	shorttitle = {The effects of \textit{coups d’état} on journalists},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01296612.2020.1829858},
	doi = {10.1080/01296612.2020.1829858},
	language = {en},
	number = {3-4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Media Asia},
	author = {Hearns-Branaman, Jesse Owen},
	month = oct,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {110--122},
	file = {Hearns-Branaman - 2020 - The effects of coups d’état on journalists.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/WXTNI6WX/Hearns-Branaman - 2020 - The effects of coups d’état on journalists.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{eissa_use_nodate,
	title = {Use of hate speech in {Arabic} language newspapers},
	language = {en},
	author = {Eissa, Sarah},
	pages = {156},
	file = {Eissa - Use of hate speech in Arabic language newspapers.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/U8ZBJXSP/Eissa - Use of hate speech in Arabic language newspapers.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{verkamp_five_nodate,
	title = {Five incidents, one theme: {Twitter} spam as a weapon to drown voices of protest},
	abstract = {Social networking sites, such as Twitter and Facebook, have become an impressive force in the modern world with user bases larger than many individual countries. With such influence, they have become important in the process of worldwide politics. Those seeking to be elected often use social networking accounts to promote their agendas while those opposing them may seek to either counter those views or drown them in a sea of noise. Building on previous work that analyzed a Russian event where Twitter spam was used as a vehicle to suppress political speech, we inspect five political events from 2011 and 2012: two related to China and one each from Syria, Russia, and Mexico. Each of these events revolved around popular Twitter hashtags which were inundated with spam tweets intended to overwhelm the original content.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Verkamp, John-Paul and Gupta, Minaxi},
	pages = {7},
	file = {Verkamp and Gupta - Five incidents, one theme Twitter spam as a weapo.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/3EK6XXE9/Verkamp and Gupta - Five incidents, one theme Twitter spam as a weapo.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mcmillan_how_2004,
	title = {How to {Subvert} {Democracy}: {Montesinos} in {Peru}},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {0895-3309},
	shorttitle = {How to {Subvert} {Democracy}},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/0895330042632690},
	doi = {10.1257/0895330042632690},
	abstract = {Which of the democratic checks and balances–opposition parties, the judiciary, a free press–is the most forceful? Peru has the full set of democratic institutions. In the 1990s, the secret-police chief Montesinos systematically undermined them all with bribes. We quantify the checks using the bribe prices. Montesinos paid a television-channel owner about 100 times what he paid a judge or a politician. One single television channel's bribe was five times larger than the total of the opposition politicians' bribes. By revealed preference, the strongest check on the government's power was the news media.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Economic Perspectives},
	author = {McMillan, John and Zoido, Pablo},
	month = nov,
	year = {2004},
	pages = {69--92},
	file = {McMillan and Zoido - 2004 - How to Subvert Democracy Montesinos in Peru.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/Q2FT4P4J/McMillan and Zoido - 2004 - How to Subvert Democracy Montesinos in Peru.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{carter_propaganda_2021,
	title = {Propaganda and {Protest} in {Autocracies}},
	volume = {65},
	issn = {0022-0027, 1552-8766},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022002720975090},
	doi = {10.1177/0022002720975090},
	abstract = {Does propaganda reduce the rate of popular protest in autocracies? To answer this question, we draw on an original dataset of state-run newspapers from thirty countries, encompassing six languages and over four million articles. We find that propaganda diminishes the rate of protest, and that its effects persist over time. By increasing the level of pro-regime propaganda by one standard deviation, autocrats have reduced the odds of protest the following day by 15\%. The half-life of this effect is between five and ten days, and very little of the initial effect persists after one month. This temporal persistence is remarkably consistent with campaign advertisements in democracies.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Conflict Resolution},
	author = {Carter, Erin Baggott and Carter, Brett L.},
	month = may,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {919--949},
	file = {Carter and Carter - 2021 - Propaganda and Protest in Autocracies.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/M8XZ6BS9/Carter and Carter - 2021 - Propaganda and Protest in Autocracies.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{geddes_sources_1989,
	title = {Sources of {Popular} {Support} for {Authoritarian} {Regimes}},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {00925853},
	url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/2111150?origin=crossref},
	doi = {10.2307/2111150},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Geddes, Barbara and Zaller, John},
	month = may,
	year = {1989},
	pages = {319},
	file = {Geddes and Zaller - 1989 - Sources of Popular Support for Authoritarian Regim.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/223Y33MS/Geddes and Zaller - 1989 - Sources of Popular Support for Authoritarian Regim.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{suhay_incentives_2020,
	title = {The {Incentives} and {Effects} of {Independent} and {Government}-{Controlled} {Media} in the {Developing} {World}},
	isbn = {978-0-19-086080-6},
	url = {https://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190860806.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190860806-e-13},
	abstract = {The rise of broadcast and then digital media has had important political implications across the developing world. First considering independent media outlets, we review evidence showing that the media’s editorial content, revelation of information about candidates, and capacity to provide a platform for politicians can significantly shape electoral outcomes and mobilization. Unlike established democracies, the media is often used to buttress and oppose autocratic regimes. With respect to government control of the media, we review evidence of media bias, as well as its determinants and effectiveness at reducing opposition. With respect to media’s liberation potential, we examine how broadcast and internet-based technologies are—not without difficulties—providing new opportunities for facilitating dissent and change. We highlight methodological innovations, the challenges of isolating theoretical mechanisms, and avenues for future research throughout.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	booktitle = {The {Oxford} {Handbook} of {Electoral} {Persuasion}},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Larreguy, Horacio and Marshall, John},
	editor = {Suhay, Elizabeth and Grofman, Bernard and Trechsel, Alexander H.},
	collaborator = {Larreguy, Horacio and Marshall, John},
	month = jun,
	year = {2020},
	doi = {10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190860806.013.13},
	pages = {589--617},
	file = {Larreguy and Marshall - 2020 - The Incentives and Effects of Independent and Gove.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/KHNTR7VQ/Larreguy and Marshall - 2020 - The Incentives and Effects of Independent and Gove.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{sanovich_turning_2018,
	title = {Turning the {Virtual} {Tables}: {Government} {Strategies} for {Addressing} {Online} {Opposition} with an {Application} to {Russia}},
	volume = {50},
	issn = {0010-4159},
	shorttitle = {Turning the {Virtual} {Tables}},
	url = {https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/10.5129/001041518822704890},
	doi = {10.5129/001041518822704890},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Comparative Politics},
	author = {Sanovich, Sergey and Stukal, Denis and Tucker, Joshua A.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {435--482},
	file = {Sanovich et al. - 2018 - Turning the Virtual Tables Government Strategies .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/7KA9IPLX/Sanovich et al. - 2018 - Turning the Virtual Tables Government Strategies .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{egorov_why_2009,
	title = {Why {Resource}-poor {Dictators} {Allow} {Freer} {Media}: {A} {Theory} and {Evidence} from {Panel} {Data}},
	volume = {103},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	shorttitle = {Why {Resource}-poor {Dictators} {Allow} {Freer} {Media}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055409990219/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0003055409990219},
	abstract = {Every dictator dislikes free media. Yet, many nondemocratic countries have partially free or almost free media. In this article, we develop a theory of media freedom in dictatorships and provide systematic statistical evidence in support of this theory. In our model, free media allow a dictator to provide incentives to bureaucrats and therefore to improve the quality of government. The importance of this benefit varies with the natural resource endowment. In resource-rich countries, bureaucratic incentives are less important for the dictator; hence, media freedom is less likely to emerge. Using panel data, we show that controlling for country fixed effects, media are less free in oil-rich economies, with the effect especially pronounced in nondemocratic regimes. These results are robust to model specification and the inclusion of various controls, including the level of economic development, democracy, country size, size of government, and others.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {Egorov, Georgy and Guriev, Sergei and Sonin, Konstantin},
	month = nov,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {645--668},
	file = {Egorov et al. - 2009 - Why Resource-poor Dictators Allow Freer Media A T.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/MBJHS3WN/Egorov et al. - 2009 - Why Resource-poor Dictators Allow Freer Media A T.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lu_pervasive_2021,
	title = {The {Pervasive} {Presence} of {Chinese} {Government} {Content} on {Douyin} {Trending} {Videos}},
	issn = {1556-5068},
	url = {https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=3794898},
	doi = {10.2139/ssrn.3794898},
	abstract = {The proliferation of social media has expanded the strategies for government propaganda, but quantitative analyses of the content of digital propaganda continue to rely predominantly on textual data. In this paper, we use a multi-modal approach that combines analysis of video, text, and meta-data to explore the characteristics of Chinese government activities on Douyin, China’s leading social video-sharing platform. We apply this multi-modal approach on a novel dataset of 50,813 videos we collected from the Douyin Trending page. We find that videos from the Douyin accounts of Chinese state media, government, and Communist Party entities (what we call state-affiliated accounts) represent roughly half of all videos featured on the Douyin Trending page. Videos from state-affiliated accounts focus on political information and news while other Trending videos are dominated by entertainment content. Videos from state-affiliated accounts also exhibit features, including short duration, brightness, and high entropy, found in prior research to increase attention and engagement. However, videos from state-affiliated accounts tend to exhibit lower average levels of audience engagement than Trending videos from other types of accounts. The methods and substantive findings of this paper contributes to an emerging literature in communication on the computational analysis of video as data.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {SSRN Electronic Journal},
	author = {Lu, Yingdan and Pan, Jennifer},
	year = {2021},
	file = {Lu and Pan - 2021 - The Pervasive Presence of Chinese Government Conte.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CJVSEBBV/Lu and Pan - 2021 - The Pervasive Presence of Chinese Government Conte.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{voltmer_media_2019,
	address = {Cham},
	title = {Media, {Communication} and the {Struggle} for {Democratic} {Change}: {Case} {Studies} on {Contested} {Transitions}},
	isbn = {978-3-030-16747-9 978-3-030-16748-6},
	shorttitle = {Media, {Communication} and the {Struggle} for {Democratic} {Change}},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-16748-6},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	publisher = {Springer International Publishing},
	editor = {Voltmer, Katrin and Christensen, Christian and Neverla, Irene and Stremlau, Nicole and Thomass, Barbara and Vladisavljević, Nebojša and Wasserman, Herman},
	year = {2019},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-030-16748-6},
	file = {Voltmer et al. - 2019 - Media, Communication and the Struggle for Democrat.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/KLAFMLAJ/Voltmer et al. - 2019 - Media, Communication and the Struggle for Democrat.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lasswell_garrison_nodate,
	title = {The {Garrison} {State}},
	abstract = {The garrisonstateis a "developmentalconstruct"about thefuturecourseofworldpolitics,whosefunctionis to stimulatethe individualspecialistto clarifyforhimself his expectationsabout thefutureas a guideto thetimingofscientifiwc ork. The trend of the timeis away fromthe dominanceof the specialiston bargaining,who is the businessman,and toward the supremacyof the specialist on violence,the soldier. Methods:It is probablethat the rulingeliteof thegarrisonstate willacquire mostof the skillsthat we have come to accept as part of moderncivilianmanagement.Particularlyprominenwt illbe skillin themanipulationofsymbolsin theinterestofmorale and publicrelations.Unemploymenwt illbe "psychologically"abolished. Internalviolence will be directedprincipallyagainst unskilledmanual workersand counterelite elementswho have comeundersuspicion.Incomeswillbe somewhatequalized in the interestofmaintainingmoraleundermodernconditionsofsocializeddanger. The practicewillbe to recruittheeliteaccordingtoability(inperiodsofcrisis);authoritywillbe dictatorial,governmentalizedc,entralized,integrated.Value distributionT: he power pyramidwillbe steep,but thedistributionofsafetywillbe equalized (the socialization ofdangerundermodernconditionsofaerialwarfare).The incomeand respectpyramids will be betweenthe othertwo-each pyramidflattenedat the top,bulgedout in the upper-middlaend lower-middlzeones. Value produiction: The eliteswillseekto holdin checktheutilizationoftheproductivepotentialitiesofmodernscienceand engineering fornonmilitaryconsumptiongoods. The rate ofproductionwill be regularized.Productionwillbe affectedby thetendenciestowardrigidityin a militarystate,but these effectws illbe largelyneutralizedby theskillgroupsofscienceand technology.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Lasswell, Harold D},
	pages = {14},
	file = {Lasswell - The Garrison State.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/YE3JWKM4/Lasswell - The Garrison State.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lasswell_theory_1927,
	title = {The {Theory} of {Political} {Propaganda}},
	volume = {21},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400024503/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.2307/1945515},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {Lasswell, Harold D.},
	month = aug,
	year = {1927},
	pages = {627--631},
	file = {Lasswell - 1927 - The Theory of Political Propaganda.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ANBQAWVL/Lasswell - 1927 - The Theory of Political Propaganda.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{anderson_metaphors_2001,
	title = {Metaphors of {Dictatorship} and {Democracy}: {Change} in the {Russian} {Political} {Lexicon} and the {Transformation} of {Russian} {Politics}},
	volume = {60},
	issn = {0037-6779, 2325-7784},
	shorttitle = {Metaphors of {Dictatorship} and {Democracy}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0037677900025274/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.2307/2697273},
	abstract = {Metaphors act as cues to social identities. Political discourse that communicates the distinctiveness of the rulers' identity sustains authoritarianism by cueing people to act as either oppressors or oppressed, while political discourse that cues identification by citizens with politicians promotes democracy by encouraging people to participate. In Politburo speeches from the era of Soviet authoritarianism, metaphors of size, superiority, distance, and subordination were abundant. These metaphors are suitable for emphasizing the separateness of politics from ordinary life and for communicating the inferiority of the populace. In Politburo speeches from the transition year 1989, these metaphors had already begun to decrease in frequency, while new metaphors, often borrowed from the discourse of international diplomacy, deconstructed the rulers' claims to continuing authority. In Russian political discourse from the first years of electoral politics, authoritarian metaphors decline even more sharply and are replaced by metaphors of choice and identification suitable for encouraging people to align themselves with electoral candidates.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Slavic Review},
	author = {Anderson, Richard D.},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {312--335},
	file = {Anderson - 2001 - Metaphors of Dictatorship and Democracy Change in.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/Q7U7QW2T/Anderson - 2001 - Metaphors of Dictatorship and Democracy Change in.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{huang_propaganda_2015,
	title = {Propaganda as {Signaling}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0010-4159},
	url = {https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/10.5129/001041515816103220},
	doi = {10.5129/001041515816103220},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Comparative Politics},
	author = {Huang, Haifeng},
	month = jul,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {419--444},
	file = {Huang - 2015 - Propaganda as Signaling.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/IQUNDCNY/Huang - 2015 - Propaganda as Signaling.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{de_albuquerque_mediapolitics_2013,
	title = {Media/politics connections: beyond political parallelism},
	volume = {35},
	issn = {0163-4437, 1460-3675},
	shorttitle = {Media/politics connections},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0163443713491302},
	doi = {10.1177/0163443713491302},
	abstract = {Used by Seymour-Ure and by Blumler and Gurevitch the concept of “political parallelism” gained further prominence after Hallin and Mancini took it as one of their key variables in the comparison of media systems. The concept seems to work well for analyzing western societies, but how useful is it for dealing with the rest of the world? This article suggests that the concept of political parallelism only can be productively used when two conditions are satisfied. There must be a competitive political system, with political cleavages clear enough to allow the media to reproduce them, and an institutionalized relationship between media and political agents that is sufficiently stable to allow the observer to identify recurrent patterns of interaction. However, these requirements are not met everywhere. By “provincializing” the concept of political parallelism – taking it as a product of specific circumstances, rather than as a universally applicable category – this article proposes a new and more globally applicable framework for studying political communication},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Media, Culture \& Society},
	author = {de Albuquerque, Afonso},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {742--758},
	file = {de Albuquerque - 2013 - Mediapolitics connections beyond political paral.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/QI9E75MJ/de Albuquerque - 2013 - Mediapolitics connections beyond political paral.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{papatheodorou_umbilical_2003,
	title = {The {Umbilical} {Cord} {That} {Was} {Never} {Cut}: {The} {Post}-{Dictatorial} {Intimacy} between the {Political} {Elite} and the {Mass} {Media} in {Greece} and {Spain}},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {0267-3231, 1460-3705},
	shorttitle = {The {Umbilical} {Cord} {That} {Was} {Never} {Cut}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0267323103018001225},
	doi = {10.1177/0267323103018001225},
	abstract = {Market dynamics has led to a dramatic transformation of the Spanish and Greek media systems since the late 1980s, bringing them in line with West European patterns. The current media landscape is, thus, a far cry from the introvert, parochial press and broadcasting systems present in the two countries in the first 15 years of democratic government, when the partisan political control of radio and television and the overpoliticization of the press were dominant features of their media systems. The aim of this article is to analyse the key developments in the media industries of these two Southern European countries and identify the elements of continuity and change through an examination of the interplay between the state, the market and the media. Despite the multiplication of media outlets, it is argued, state policy in the media is determined as ever by the persistent culture of political expediency, typical of the European south, as political elites still seek desperately to influence the content of political coverage.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {European Journal of Communication},
	author = {Papatheodorou, Fotini and Machin, David},
	month = mar,
	year = {2003},
	pages = {31--54},
	file = {Papatheodorou and Machin - 2003 - The Umbilical Cord That Was Never Cut The Post-Di.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/3X2EFGS2/Papatheodorou and Machin - 2003 - The Umbilical Cord That Was Never Cut The Post-Di.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{huang_war_2017,
	title = {A {War} of ({Mis}){Information}: {The} {Political} {Effects} of {Rumors} and {Rumor} {Rebuttals} in an {Authoritarian} {Country}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0007-1234, 1469-2112},
	shorttitle = {A {War} of ({Mis}){Information}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007123415000253/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0007123415000253},
	abstract = {Despite the prevalence of anti-government rumors in authoritarian countries, little is currently known about their effects on citizens’ attitudes toward the government, and whether the authorities can effectively combat rumors. With an experimental procedure embedded in two surveys about Chinese internet users’ information exposure, this study finds that rumors decrease citizens’ trust in the government and support of the regime. Moreover, individuals from diverse socio-economic and political backgrounds are similarly susceptible to thinly evidenced rumors. Rebuttals generally reduce people’s belief in the specific content of rumors, but often do not recover political trust unless the government brings forth solid and vivid evidence to back its refutation or win the endorsement of public figures broadly perceived to be independent. But because such high-quality and strong rebuttals are hard to come by, rumors will erode political support in an authoritarian state. These findings have rich implications for studies of rumors and misinformation in general, and authoritarian information politics in particular.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {British Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Huang, Haifeng},
	month = apr,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {283--311},
	file = {Huang - 2017 - A War of (Mis)Information The Political Effects o.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/T87RWIE9/Huang - 2017 - A War of (Mis)Information The Political Effects o.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{hallin_typology_2016,
	title = {Typology of {Media} {Systems}},
	isbn = {978-0-19-022863-7},
	url = {https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-205},
	abstract = {Typologies are a central tool of comparative analysis in the social sciences. Typologies identify common patterns in the relationships among elements of media systems and wider social systems, and serve to generate research questions about why particular patterns occur in particular systems, why particular cases may deviate from common patterns, and what the consequences of these patterns may be. They are important for specifying the context within which particular processes operate, and therefore for identifying possible system-level causes, specifying the scope of applicability of theories, and assessing the validity of measurements across systems. Typologies of media systems date to the publication of Four Theories of the Press, which proposed a typology of authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility and Soviet Communist media systems. Hallin and Mancini’s typology of media systems in Western Europe and North America has influenced most recent work in comparative analysis of media systems. Hallin and Mancini proposed three models differentiated on the basis of four clusters of variables: the development of media markets; the degree and forms of political parallelism; journalistic professionalism; and the role of the state. Much recent research has been devoted to operationalizing these dimensions of comparison, and a number of revisions of Hallin and Mancini’s model and proposals for alternative approaches have been proposed. Researchers have also begun efforts to develop typologies including media systems outside of Western Europe and North America.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	booktitle = {Oxford {Research} {Encyclopedia} of {Politics}},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Hallin, Daniel C.},
	collaborator = {Hallin, Daniel C.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2016},
	doi = {10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.205},
	file = {Hallin - 2016 - Typology of Media Systems.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/KGT9533N/Hallin - 2016 - Typology of Media Systems.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{de_leeuw_after_2020,
	title = {After {All} {This} {Time}? {The} {Impact} of {Media} and {Authoritarian} {History} on {Political} {News} {Coverage} in {Twelve} {Western} {Countries}},
	volume = {70},
	issn = {0021-9916, 1460-2466},
	shorttitle = {After {All} {This} {Time}?},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/joc/article/70/5/744/5916957},
	doi = {10.1093/joc/jqaa029},
	abstract = {Historical classifications of journalistic traditions are the backbone of comparative explanations for political news coverage. This study assesses the validity of the dominant media systems framework and proposes and tests a novel framework, which states that a history of authoritarianism affects today’s coverage. To facilitate a clean cross-national comparison, we focus on the same person and measurement in 12 Western democracies, that is, the use of the pejorative terms “sexist,” “racist,” “dictator,” and equivalents to describe Donald Trump. Our manually validated automated content analysis (2016–2018; N ¼ 27,830) shows that content varies along with countries’ media and authoritarian history: pejoration is more common in countries with a polarized pluralist media system and former authoritarian countries than elsewhere. Newspapers’ ideology does not matter, irrespective of countries’ level of political parallelism or experiences with authoritarianism. Combined, we provide new methodological and theoretical handles to further comparative communication research in Western democracies.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Communication},
	author = {de Leeuw, Sjifra E and Azrout, Rachid and Rekker, Roderik S B and Van Spanje, Joost H P},
	month = oct,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {744--767},
	file = {de Leeuw et al. - 2020 - After All This Time The Impact of Media and Autho.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/T58NNT8G/de Leeuw et al. - 2020 - After All This Time The Impact of Media and Autho.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lorentzen_chinas_2014,
	title = {China's {Strategic} {Censorship}: {CHINA}'{S} {STRATEGIC} {CENSORSHIP}},
	volume = {58},
	issn = {00925853},
	shorttitle = {China's {Strategic} {Censorship}},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajps.12065},
	doi = {10.1111/ajps.12065},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Lorentzen, Peter},
	month = apr,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {402--414},
	file = {Lorentzen - 2014 - China's Strategic Censorship CHINA'S STRATEGIC CE.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/FZURTRMA/Lorentzen - 2014 - China's Strategic Censorship CHINA'S STRATEGIC CE.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{graber_t_2003,
	title = {T {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{HE}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} {M} {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{EDIA} {AND}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} {D} {\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}{EMOCRACY}{\textless}/span{\textgreater} : {Beyond} {Myths} and {Stereotypes}},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {1094-2939, 1545-1577},
	shorttitle = {T {\textless}span style="font-variant},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.polisci.6.121901.085707},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.polisci.6.121901.085707},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Annual Review of Political Science},
	author = {Graber, Doris},
	month = jun,
	year = {2003},
	pages = {139--160},
	file = {Graber - 2003 - T HE.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/3RTHDLWC/Graber - 2003 - T HE.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{schnell_assessing_2001,
	title = {Assessing the {Democratic} {Debate}: {How} the {News} {Media} {Frame} {Elite} {Policy} {Discourse}},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {1058-4609, 1091-7675},
	shorttitle = {Assessing the {Democratic} {Debate}},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/105846001750322970},
	doi = {10.1080/105846001750322970},
	abstract = {This article examines the way in which the news media frame public policy issues and the extent to which other political players (e.g., interest groups, politicians) influence this issue framing process. Our analysis focuses on the issue of gun control, comparing the rhetoric generated by interest groups and public officials on the Brady Bill and Assault Weapons Ban with actual network news coverage of this legislation from 1988 to 1996. Results indicate that both sets of political players employed several interpretative issue frames and worked hard to put their preferred themes on the agenda. However, at times, the media intervened in the framing process, especially as the debate matured. Specifically, the news media (a) structured the overall tone of the gun control debate, (b) adopted a distribution of framing perspectives different from that of politicians and interest groups, and (c) packaged policy discourse more often than not in terms of the “culture of violence” theme. These findings point toward previously ignored media effects and attest to the potential role the media play in shaping public policy debates.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Political Communication},
	author = {Schnell, Frauke, Karen Callaghan},
	month = apr,
	year = {2001},
	pages = {183--213},
	file = {Schnell - 2001 - Assessing the Democratic Debate How the News Medi.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5LT2VLEZ/Schnell - 2001 - Assessing the Democratic Debate How the News Medi.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{milton_bound_nodate,
	title = {Bound {But} {Not} {Gagged}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Milton, Andrew K},
	pages = {34},
	file = {Milton - Bound But Not Gagged.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5IXBEWRG/Milton - Bound But Not Gagged.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bleck_capturing_2017,
	title = {Capturing the {Airwaves}, {Capturing} the {Nation}? {A} {Field} {Experiment} on {State}-{Run} {Media} {Effects} in the {Wake} of a {Coup}},
	volume = {79},
	issn = {0022-3816, 1468-2508},
	shorttitle = {Capturing the {Airwaves}, {Capturing} the {Nation}?},
	url = {https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/690616},
	doi = {10.1086/690616},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {The Journal of Politics},
	author = {Bleck, Jaimie and Michelitch, Kristin},
	month = jul,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {873--889},
	file = {Bleck and Michelitch - 2017 - Capturing the Airwaves, Capturing the Nation A Fi.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/BGWQJXU3/Bleck and Michelitch - 2017 - Capturing the Airwaves, Capturing the Nation A Fi.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{over_democratic_nodate,
	title = {Democratic backsliding and the media: the convergence of news narratives in {Turkey}},
	abstract = {This article presents how the rise of Justice and Development Party (AKP) to political power in Turkey transformed journalists’ professional practices as to lead to a decline in the plurality of opinions presented in the media. After AKP’s second electoral victory in 2007, political trials, property transfers, and dismissals wrapped in a discourse of punishment and purge of the “nation’s enemies” destabilized long established power hierarchies of secularists, religious-conservatives, Kurds, and leftists in Turkey. The destabilization was caused by the state’s changing attitude toward these identity groups, and in the media it lead to shifts in journalists’ status positions and emotions. Varying professional responses triggered by these shifts explain the convergence to a dominant singular political narrative in the media. This argument builds on narrative evidence collected between 2012 and 2014 via in-depth interviews, newspaper articles, and journalists’ memoires. With a from-below account, the article presents the effects of destabilized hierarchies on journalistic practice. In the example of media, it invites scholars to rethink contemporary democratic backsliding in terms of the links between state actors and non-state actors, on the one hand, and social actors’ power positions, political identities, and professional practices, on the other.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Över, Defne},
	pages = {16},
	file = {Över - Democratic backsliding and the media the converge.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/VZV44KX8/Över - Democratic backsliding and the media the converge.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{luo_detecting_2021,
	title = {Detecting {Stance} in {Media} on {Global} {Warming}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2010.15149},
	abstract = {Citing opinions is a powerful yet understudied strategy in argumentation. For example, an environmental activist might say, “Leading scientists agree that global warming is a serious concern,” framing a clause which affirms their own stance (that global warming is serious) as an opinion endorsed ([scientists] agree) by a reputable source (leading). In contrast, a global warming denier might frame the same clause as the opinion of an untrustworthy source with a predicate connoting doubt: “Mistaken scientists claim [...].” Our work studies opinion-framing in the global warming (GW) debate,1 an increasingly partisan issue that has received little attention in NLP. We introduce Global Warming Stance Dataset (GWSD), a dataset of stance-labeled GW sentences, and train a BERT classifier to study novel aspects of argumentation in how different sides of a debate represent their own and each other’s opinions. From 56K news articles, we find that similar linguistic devices for self-affirming and opponent-doubting discourse are used across GW-accepting and skeptic media, though GWskeptical media shows more opponent-doubt. We also find that authors often characterize sources as hypocritical, by ascribing opinions expressing the author’s own view to source entities known to publicly endorse the opposing view. We release our stance dataset, model, and lexicons of framing devices for future work on opinion-framing and the automatic detection of GW stance.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {arXiv:2010.15149 [cs]},
	author = {Luo, Yiwei and Card, Dallas and Jurafsky, Dan},
	month = jan,
	year = {2021},
	note = {arXiv: 2010.15149},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Artificial Intelligence, Computer Science - Computation and Language},
	file = {Luo et al. - 2021 - Detecting Stance in Media on Global Warming.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/LPYU93FA/Luo et al. - 2021 - Detecting Stance in Media on Global Warming.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{yildirim_dynamics_2021,
	title = {Dynamics of {Campaign} {Reporting} and {Press}-{Party} {Parallelism}: {Rise} of {Competitive} {Authoritarianism} and the {Media} {System} in {Turkey}},
	volume = {38},
	issn = {1058-4609, 1091-7675},
	shorttitle = {Dynamics of {Campaign} {Reporting} and {Press}-{Party} {Parallelism}},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1765913},
	doi = {10.1080/10584609.2020.1765913},
	abstract = {How do press-party parallelism dynamics unfold in media systems that experience competitive authoritarianism? We analyze the content of news coverage of political parties across four consecutive national election campaigns in Turkey (2002, 2007, 2011, and 2015) to track changes in press-party parallelism. We explore three dimensions of press-party parallelism in order to study its dynamics: visibility of political parties, the effective number of parties represented in newspapers, and lastly, favorability toward political parties. First, within each campaign cycle, as election day approaches, visibility of the incumbent party increases while the visibility of other parties tends to decline. Likewise, the incumbent party’s visibility increases across the four elections we study. Second, for all newspaper groups, the number of parties that receive favorable or unfavorable coverage declines over consecutive election terms. Third, the incumbent party is the only that gains in terms of positive coverage within and across each election campaign period. Taken together, we show evidence for press-party parallelism dynamics in a competitive authoritarian country.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Political Communication},
	author = {Yıldırım, Kerem and Baruh, Lemi and Çarkoğlu, Ali},
	month = may,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {326--349},
	file = {Yıldırım et al. - 2021 - Dynamics of Campaign Reporting and Press-Party Par.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AQEGII32/Yıldırım et al. - 2021 - Dynamics of Campaign Reporting and Press-Party Par.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{whitten-woodring_fourth_2012,
	title = {Fourth {Estate} or {Mouthpiece}? {A} {Formal} {Model} of {Media}, {Protest}, and {Government} {Repression}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {1058-4609, 1091-7675},
	shorttitle = {Fourth {Estate} or {Mouthpiece}?},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10584609.2012.671232},
	doi = {10.1080/10584609.2012.671232},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Political Communication},
	author = {Whitten-Woodring, Jenifer and James, Patrick},
	month = apr,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {113--136},
	file = {Whitten-Woodring and James - 2012 - Fourth Estate or Mouthpiece A Formal Model of Med.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AUAMU8CE/Whitten-Woodring and James - 2012 - Fourth Estate or Mouthpiece A Formal Model of Med.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{field_framing_2018,
	title = {Framing and {Agenda}-setting in {Russian} {News}: a {Computational} {Analysis} of {Intricate} {Political} {Strategies}},
	shorttitle = {Framing and {Agenda}-setting in {Russian} {News}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1808.09386},
	abstract = {Amidst growing concern over media manipulation, NLP attention has focused on overt strategies like censorship and “fake news”. Here, we draw on two concepts from the political science literature to explore subtler strategies for government media manipulation: agenda-setting (selecting what topics to cover) and framing (deciding how topics are covered). We analyze 13 years (100K articles) of the Russian newspaper Izvestia and identify a strategy of distraction: articles mention the U.S. more frequently in the month directly following an economic downturn in Russia. We introduce embedding-based methods for cross-lingually projecting English frames to Russian, and discover that these articles emphasize U.S. moral failings and threats to the U.S. Our work offers new ways to identify subtle media manipulation strategies at the intersection of agenda-setting and framing.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {arXiv:1808.09386 [cs]},
	author = {Field, Anjalie and Kliger, Doron and Wintner, Shuly and Pan, Jennifer and Jurafsky, Dan and Tsvetkov, Yulia},
	month = oct,
	year = {2018},
	note = {arXiv: 1808.09386},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language},
	file = {Field et al. - 2018 - Framing and Agenda-setting in Russian News a Comp.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/K3QNETLE/Field et al. - 2018 - Framing and Agenda-setting in Russian News a Comp.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{besley_handcuffs_2006,
	title = {Handcuffs for the {Grabbing} {Hand}? {Media} {Capture} and {Government} {Accountability}},
	volume = {96},
	issn = {0002-8282},
	shorttitle = {Handcuffs for the {Grabbing} {Hand}?},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/aer.96.3.720},
	doi = {10.1257/aer.96.3.720},
	abstract = {It has long been recognized that the media play an essential role in government accountability. Even in the absence of censorship, however, the government may influence news content by maintaining a “cozy” relationship with the media. This paper develops a model of democratic politics in which media capture is endogenous. The model offers insights into the features of the media market that determine the ability of the government to exercise such capture and hence to influence political outcomes.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Economic Review},
	author = {Besley, Timothy and Prat, Andrea},
	month = may,
	year = {2006},
	pages = {720--736},
	file = {Besley and Prat - 2006 - Handcuffs for the Grabbing Hand Media Capture and.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/MBP58FFV/Besley and Prat - 2006 - Handcuffs for the Grabbing Hand Media Capture and.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{pan_how_2021,
	title = {How government-controlled media shifts policy attitudes through framing},
	issn = {2049-8470, 2049-8489},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S2049847021000352/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/psrm.2021.35},
	abstract = {Research shows that government-controlled media is an effective tool for authoritarian regimes to shape public opinion. Does government-controlled media remain effective when it is required to support changes in positions that autocrats take on issues? Existing theories do not provide a clear answer to this question, but we often observe authoritarian governments using government media to frame policies in new ways when significant changes in policy positions are required. By conducting an experiment that exposes respondents to government-controlled media—in the form of TV news segments—on issues where the regime substantially changed its policy positions, we find that by framing the same issue differently, government-controlled media moves respondents to adopt policy positions closer to the ones espoused by the regime regardless of individual predisposition. This result holds for domestic and foreign policy issues, for direct and composite measures of attitudes, and persists up to 48 hours after exposure.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Political Science Research and Methods},
	author = {Pan, Jennifer and Shao, Zijie and Xu, Yiqing},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {1--16},
	file = {Pan et al. - 2021 - How government-controlled media shifts policy atti.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/VUDLAYLY/Pan et al. - 2021 - How government-controlled media shifts policy atti.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{voltmer_hybrid_2021,
	title = {Hybrid {Media} and {Hybrid} {Politics}: {Contesting} {Informational} {Uncertainty} in {Lebanon} and {Tunisia}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1940-1612, 1940-1620},
	shorttitle = {Hybrid {Media} and {Hybrid} {Politics}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1940161221999266},
	doi = {10.1177/1940161221999266},
	abstract = {This paper investigates the dynamic relationship between hybrid media and hybrid politics in Lebanon and Tunisia. While previous research on the media in hybrid regimes has mainly focused on regime strategies of restricting and manipulating public debate, our analysis moves beyond repression. We argue that the ambiguities of hybrid politics, which combines democratic and authoritarian elements, not only constrain independent and critical reporting but also open up opportunities for journalistic agencies. We draw on Schedler’s concept of informational uncertainty to capture the epistemological instability of hybrid regimes and the strategies of political actors to control public knowledge. Distinguishing between three dimensions of media hybridity - economic, cultural and technological - we show how the new hybrid media environment significantly increases the volatility of hybrid politics and informational uncertainty for political actors. Our empirical analysis is based on seventy-one semistructured interviews with journalists in Lebanon and Tunisia conducted between 2016 and 2019. The material reveals a broad range of strategies used by journalists who employ the internal contradictions of hybrid politics to pursue their own agenda. The comparison between Lebanon and Tunisia also highlights contextual conditions that enable, or limit, journalistic agency, such as clientelistic dependencies, economic resources, and civil society alliances.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {The International Journal of Press/Politics},
	author = {Voltmer, Katrin and Selvik, Kjetil and Høigilt, Jacob},
	month = oct,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {842--860},
	file = {Voltmer et al. - 2021 - Hybrid Media and Hybrid Politics Contesting Infor.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/UE9EA23H/Voltmer et al. - 2021 - Hybrid Media and Hybrid Politics Contesting Infor.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{selvik_journalism_2021,
	title = {Journalism {Under} {Instrumentalized} {Political} {Parallelism}},
	volume = {22},
	issn = {1461-670X, 1469-9699},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1461670X.2021.1897476},
	doi = {10.1080/1461670X.2021.1897476},
	abstract = {Media systems where political parallelism co-exists with political clientelism have contradictory influences on journalistic practices. Journalists are encouraged to actively defend a cause and influence public opinion while expected to remain subservient to their political masters. The media studies literature has analyzed the impact of political parallelism and clientelism separately, without reflecting on the tensions that emerge when they operate together. The article examines journalism under instrumentalized political parallelism and argues that it plays out in a field defined by both horizontal and vertical conflicts. We add an elite-grassroots analytical perspective to the inter-elite tensions associated with a polarized public sphere. Political parallelism in non-democratic contexts seemingly leaves little room for journalistic agency, as the politically powerful tend to instrumentalize media outlets. However, by looking closely at the case of Lebanon, we argue that journalists are still able to act independently of and contrary to the elite’s intentions. The empirical analysis shows how journalists navigate vis-à-vis the politicians by playing the relations game, exploiting internal contradictions in the system and connecting with popular grievances. The article contributes new knowledge about journalists’ resilience to instrumentalization in a context of media/ politics connections that is commonly found outside the West.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journalism Studies},
	author = {Selvik, Kjetil and Høigilt, Jacob},
	month = apr,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {653--669},
	file = {Selvik and Høigilt - 2021 - Journalism Under Instrumentalized Political Parall.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/VLXQFVBM/Selvik and Høigilt - 2021 - Journalism Under Instrumentalized Political Parall.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{brady_mass_2009,
	title = {Mass {Persuasion} as a {Means} of {Legitimation} and {China}’s {Popular} {Authoritarianism}},
	volume = {53},
	issn = {0002-7642, 1552-3381},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002764209338802},
	doi = {10.1177/0002764209338802},
	abstract = {States traditionally maintain power by means of either performance-based legitimacy or promulgating ideology. Mass persuasion can be used to both promote a regime’s ideology and persuade the public that it is performing the tasks of government effectively and equitably. Most states use a combination of these two approaches to maintain political stability. In China, since the violent crackdown on the 1989 protest movement, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) government has stressed an old slogan to set a new line on its format for maintaining political power: “Seize with both hands; both hands must be strong.” This means that the CCP now bases its legitimacy on both economic growth and a renewed emphasis on persuasion, or what in Chinese terms is known as propaganda and thought work. The two “hands” in this slogan are strong and intertwined, as the key themes of propaganda and thought work in the current period are promoting economic growth, building market confidence, and engaging in economic thought reform. In an extraordinary process of cultural exchange, in recent years China’s propaganda system has deliberately absorbed the methodology of political public relations, mass communications, social psychology, and other modern methods of mass persuasion commonly used in Western democratic societies, adapting them to Chinese conditions and needs. China’s modern-day propaganda and thought work is now market friendly, scientific, high tech, and politics-lite. Focusing on the years from 1989 to 2007, this article uses the case of contemporary China to examine the role of mass persuasion as a force for maintaining and, in China’s case, reclaiming political legitimacy to rule and introduces a new term to understand the China model, popular authoritarianism.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Behavioral Scientist},
	author = {Brady, Anne-Marie},
	month = nov,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {434--457},
	file = {Brady - 2009 - Mass Persuasion as a Means of Legitimation and Chi.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/X6N2YJLY/Brady - 2009 - Mass Persuasion as a Means of Legitimation and Chi.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{niven_measuring_nodate,
	title = {Measuring {Alignment} to {Authoritarian} {State} {Media} as {Framing} {Bias}},
	abstract = {We introduce what is to the best of our knowledge a new task in natural language processing: measuring alignment to authoritarian state media. We operationalize alignment in terms of sociological definitions of media bias. We take as a case study the alignment of four Taiwanese media outlets to the Chinese Communist Party state media. We present the results of an initial investigation using the frequency of words in psychologically meaningful categories. Our findings suggest that the chosen word categories correlate with framing choices. We develop a calculation method that yields reasonable results for measuring alignment, agreeing well with the known labels. We confirm that our method does capture event selection bias, but whether it captures framing bias requires further investigation.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Niven, Timothy and Kao, Hung-Yu},
	pages = {11},
	file = {Niven and Kao - Measuring Alignment to Authoritarian State Media a.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/4QQGYTCP/Niven and Kao - Measuring Alignment to Authoritarian State Media a.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{enikolopov_media_2015,
	title = {Media {Capture}},
	volume = {1},
	isbn = {978-0-444-63691-1},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444636850000176},
	abstract = {This chapter overviews the empirical literature on the determinants and the consequences of media capture, i.e., the situation in which governments or other interest groups try to control the content of media outlets. We start by examining the evidence on the effect of media capture on the content of media outlets. Then we discuss the methods governments and other special interests use to control media. We review the literature on the determinants of media capture and the factors that affect the likelihood of media capture. Next, we present evidence on the effects of captured media on the behavior of people, as well as the effects of independent media in a captured environment. We conclude by discussing the factors that limit the effect of propaganda.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	booktitle = {Handbook of {Media} {Economics}},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	author = {Enikolopov, Ruben and Petrova, Maria},
	year = {2015},
	doi = {10.1016/B978-0-444-63685-0.00017-6},
	pages = {687--700},
	file = {Enikolopov and Petrova - 2015 - Media Capture.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ITZM3Z3M/Enikolopov and Petrova - 2015 - Media Capture.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{ryabinska_media_2014,
	title = {Media {Capture} in {Post}-{Communist} {Ukraine}: {Actors}, {Methods}, and {Conditions}},
	volume = {61},
	issn = {1075-8216, 1557-783X},
	shorttitle = {Media {Capture} in {Post}-{Communist} {Ukraine}},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.2753/PPC1075-8216610204},
	doi = {10.2753/PPC1075-8216610204},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Problems of Post-Communism},
	author = {Ryabinska, Natalya},
	month = mar,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {46--60},
	file = {Ryabinska - 2014 - Media Capture in Post-Communist Ukraine Actors, M.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/D82P6HDZ/Ryabinska - 2014 - Media Capture in Post-Communist Ukraine Actors, M.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{newton_mass_1999,
	title = {Mass {Media} {Effects}: {Mobilization} or {Media} {Malaise}?},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0007-1234, 1469-2112},
	shorttitle = {Mass {Media} {Effects}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007123499000289/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0007123499000289},
	abstract = {According to some, the modern mass media have a malign effect on modern democracy, tending to induce political apathy, alienation, cynicism and a loss of social capital – in a word, ‘mediamalaise’. Some theorists argue that this is the result of media content, others that it is the consequence of the form of the media, especially television. According to others, the mass media, in conjunction with rising educational levels, help to inform and mobilize people politically, making them more knowledgeable and understanding. This study investigates the mobilization and mediamalaise hypotheses, and finds little to support the latter. Reading a broadsheet newspaper regularly is strongly associated with mobilization, while watching a lot of television has a weaker association of the same kind. Tabloid newspapers and general television are not strongly associated with measures of mediamalaise. It seems to be the content of the media, rather than its form which is important.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {British Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Newton, Kenneth},
	month = sep,
	year = {1999},
	pages = {577--599},
	file = {Newton - 1999 - Mass Media Effects Mobilization or Media Malaise.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/HCCWLLFB/Newton - 1999 - Mass Media Effects Mobilization or Media Malaise.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{ng_neural_2019,
	address = {Minneapolis, Minnesota},
	title = {Neural {Network} {Prediction} of {Censorable} {Language}},
	url = {http://aclweb.org/anthology/W19-2105},
	doi = {10.18653/v1/W19-2105},
	abstract = {Internet censorship imposes restrictions on what information can be publicized or viewed on the Internet. According to Freedom House’s annual Freedom on the Net report, more than half the world’s Internet users now live in a place where the Internet is censored or restricted. China has built the world’s most extensive and sophisticated online censorship system. In this paper, we describe a new corpus of censored and uncensored social media tweets from a Chinese microblogging website, Sina Weibo, collected by tracking posts that mention ‘sensitive’ topics or authored by ‘sensitive’ users. We use this corpus to build a neural network classifier to predict censorship. Our model performs with a 88.50\% accuracy using only linguistic features. We discuss these features in detail and hypothesize that they could potentially be used for censorship circumvention.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the {Third} {Workshop} on {Natural} {Language} {Processing} and {Computational} {Social} {Science}},
	publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
	author = {Ng, Kei Yin and Feldman, Anna and Peng, Jing and Leberknight, Chris},
	year = {2019},
	pages = {40--46},
	file = {Ng et al. - 2019 - Neural Network Prediction of Censorable Language.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CQJM9UN8/Ng et al. - 2019 - Neural Network Prediction of Censorable Language.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{pan_how_2020,
	title = {How {Saudi} {Crackdowns} {Fail} to {Silence} {Online} {Dissent}},
	volume = {114},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055419000650/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0003055419000650},
	abstract = {Saudi Arabia has imprisoned and tortured activists, religious leaders, and journalists for voicing dissent online. This reflects a growing worldwide trend in the use of physical repression to censor online speech. In this paper, we systematically examine the consequences of imprisoning well-known Saudis for online dissent by analyzing over 300 million tweets as well as detailed Google search data from 2010 to 2017 using automated text analysis and crowd-sourced human evaluation of content. We find that repression deterred imprisoned Saudis from continuing to dissent online. However, it did not suppress dissent overall. Twitter followers of the imprisoned Saudis engaged in more online dissent, including criticizing the ruling family and calling for regime change. Repression drew public attention to arrested Saudis and their causes, and other prominent figures in Saudi Arabia were not deterred by the repression of their peers and continued to dissent online.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {Pan, Jennifer and Siegel, Alexandra A.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {109--125},
	file = {Pan and Siegel - 2020 - How Saudi Crackdowns Fail to Silence Online Dissen.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5EJLJQFB/Pan and Siegel - 2020 - How Saudi Crackdowns Fail to Silence Online Dissen.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{moehler_partisan_2016,
	title = {Partisan {Media} and {Engagement}: {A} {Field} {Experiment} in a {Newly} {Liberalized} {System}},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {1058-4609, 1091-7675},
	shorttitle = {Partisan {Media} and {Engagement}},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2015.1069768},
	doi = {10.1080/10584609.2015.1069768},
	abstract = {How does media exposure affect political engagement in newly liberalized systems? Some celebrate newly vibrant and diverse media, believing that they mobilize citizens. Others worry that these outlets, which are often partisan, dampen engagement. We theorize that exposure to political programming engenders interest in politics irrespective of program bias, but that interest does not necessarily beget action. Partisan media affect participation only when altering attitude strength, and thus motivations. To evaluate media effects on interest and participation, we conducted a field experiment in Ghana, in which subjects in tro-tros (commuter vans) were randomly exposed to different types of live talk radio. We find that partisan and nonpartisan media increased political interest, but not participation. Instead, exposure to alternate perspectives on cross-cutting media (i.e., those biased against subjects’ partisan preferences) heightened ambivalence and dampened participation, measured as signing a petition to parties. Partisan media simultaneously increased interest and decreased participation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Political Communication},
	author = {Moehler, Devra C. and Conroy-Krutz, Jeffrey},
	month = jul,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {414--432},
	file = {Moehler and Conroy-Krutz - 2016 - Partisan Media and Engagement A Field Experiment .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/494BW4BN/Moehler and Conroy-Krutz - 2016 - Partisan Media and Engagement A Field Experiment .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{wollenberg_political_2020,
	title = {Political {Parallelism} in {Transitional} {Media} {Systems}: {The} {Case} of {Libya}},
	abstract = {Among the media systems in transitional countries of the Middle East and North Africa, political parallelism has become a widespread feature that has both promoted and undermined the transition to democracy. Political parallelism refers to structural ties between media organizations and political actors that often result in biased reporting. This article examines how political parallelism is shaping Libya’s newly liberated media system. Based on an analysis of ownership structures, financial sources, and political affiliations of all media outlets currently operating in this fractured country, we show that the structures of the Libyan media system indeed reflect the anatomy of political conflict. At the same time, the analysis sheds light on a large number of local radio stations that do not follow the pattern of political parallelism, but instead refrain consciously from taking political sides. We conclude that this kind of media, if invigorated and developed, could help overcome Libyan polarization.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Wollenberg, Anja},
	year = {2020},
	pages = {21},
	file = {Wollenberg - 2020 - Political Parallelism in Transitional Media System.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/TKCRUHYK/Wollenberg - 2020 - Political Parallelism in Transitional Media System.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{freedman_when_2009,
	title = {When a democratic revolution isn’t democratic or revolutionary: {Press} restraints and press freedoms after {Kyrgyzstan}’s {Tulip} {Revolution}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1464-8849, 1741-3001},
	shorttitle = {When a democratic revolution isn’t democratic or revolutionary},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1464884909344482},
	doi = {10.1177/1464884909344482},
	abstract = {Kyrgyzstan’s Tulip Revolution of March 2005 was expected to spur democratization by ousting an increasingly autocratic and repressive regime. Many journalists and media experts in and out of the country hoped the regime change would loosen constraints on the press, encourage privatization of state-owned newspapers and broadcast outlets, enhance professionalization and independence of journalists, and make a market-supported media system economically viable. A year and a half later, however, anticipated improvements in Kyrgyzstan’s press environment were still slow in developing. The findings raise questions about the realistic prospects for rapid change in press rights following revolutionary regime changes in other postcommunist countries with no tradition of a free press.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journalism},
	author = {Freedman, Eric},
	month = dec,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {843--861},
	file = {Freedman - 2009 - When a democratic revolution isn’t democratic or r.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/EIFNYV2M/Freedman - 2009 - When a democratic revolution isn’t democratic or r.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{roberts_resilience_2020,
	title = {Resilience to {Online} {Censorship}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {1094-2939, 1545-1577},
	url = {https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032837},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032837},
	abstract = {To what extent are Internet users resilient to online censorship? When does censorship influence consumption of information and when does it create backlash? Drawing on a growing literature on Internet users’ reactions to censorship, I posit that awareness of censorship, incentives to seek out information, and resources to circumvent censorship are essential to resilience to censorship. I describe how authoritarian regimes have adapted their strategies of censorship to reduce both awareness of censorship and demand for uncensored information.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Annual Review of Political Science},
	author = {Roberts, Margaret E.},
	month = may,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {401--419},
	file = {Roberts - 2020 - Resilience to Online Censorship.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/VWNQPCH9/Roberts - 2020 - Resilience to Online Censorship.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{pan_effects_2020,
	title = {The {Effects} of {Television} {News} {Propaganda}: {Experimental} {Evidence} from {China}},
	issn = {1556-5068},
	shorttitle = {The {Effects} of {Television} {News} {Propaganda}},
	url = {https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=3579148},
	doi = {10.2139/ssrn.3579148},
	abstract = {More than half of the world’s population live under authoritarian rule, where propaganda is deployed to manipulate attitudes and behaviors at scale. Television remains one of the most powerful forms of propaganda because audiences continue to regard television as an authoritative source of information. We create videos that realistically resemble Chinese state news propaganda and experimentally assess their effects on the policy preferences of the Chinese public. We find that propaganda moves respondents to adopt policy positions espoused in the video up to 48 hours after exposure and appears to work through persuasion. In contrast to prior research, effects do not vary based on individual predispositions or characteristics, which may be due to the content and format of propaganda.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {SSRN Electronic Journal},
	author = {Pan, Jennifer and Shao, Zijie and Xu, Yiqing},
	year = {2020},
	file = {Pan et al. - 2020 - The Effects of Television News Propaganda Experim.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZT5PK2N4/Pan et al. - 2020 - The Effects of Television News Propaganda Experim.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hobbs_how_2018,
	title = {How {Sudden} {Censorship} {Can} {Increase} {Access} to {Information}},
	volume = {112},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055418000084/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0003055418000084},
	abstract = {Conventional wisdom assumes that increased censorship will strictly decrease access to information. We delineate circumstances when increases in censorship expand access to information for a substantial subset of the population. When governments suddenly impose censorship on previously uncensored information, citizens accustomed to acquiring this information will be incentivized to learn methods of censorship evasion. These evasion tools provide continued access to the newly blocked information—and also extend users’ ability to access information that has long been censored. We illustrate this phenomenon using millions of individual-level actions of social media users in China before and after the block of Instagram. We show that the block inspired millions of Chinese users to acquire virtual private networks, and that these users subsequently joined censored websites like Twitter and Facebook. Despite initially being apolitical, these new users began browsing blocked political pages on Wikipedia, following Chinese political activists on Twitter, and discussing highly politicized topics such as opposition protests in Hong Kong.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {Hobbs, William R. and Roberts, Margaret E.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {621--636},
	file = {Hobbs and Roberts - 2018 - How Sudden Censorship Can Increase Access to Infor.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/YFKWT2EY/Hobbs and Roberts - 2018 - How Sudden Censorship Can Increase Access to Infor.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{woo_television_1996,
	title = {Television news discourse in political transition: {Framing} the 1987 and 1992 korean presidential elections},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {1058-4609, 1091-7675},
	shorttitle = {Television news discourse in political transition},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10584609.1996.9963095},
	doi = {10.1080/10584609.1996.9963095},
	abstract = {To explore the characteristics of news discourse during the process of democratic development and corresponding changes in media structure, this article examines how the 1987 and 1992 Korean presidential elections were framed in Korean television news. After comparing the traditional official network (KBS) news coverage of the two elections, I identify the extent to which SBS, the new private network, constituted an alternative voice in 1992. The research reveals that television news in both elections tended to frame events in accordance with the ruling party's vision by eliminating dissenting perspectives, marginalizing the opposition, and narrowing the spectrum of political discourse. There was a striking similarity in the frames used by the official and private networks. The results suggest that changes in the characteristics of news are not likely in a period of historical transition when the media system remains controlled by the government and ruling elite.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Political Communication},
	author = {Woo, Jisuk},
	month = jan,
	year = {1996},
	pages = {63--80},
	file = {Woo - 1996 - Television news discourse in political transition.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/UIMNYD2L/Woo - 1996 - Television news discourse in political transition.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{tang_emerging_2011,
	title = {The {Emerging} {Media} {System} in {China}: {Implications} for {Regime} {Change}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {1058-4609, 1091-7675},
	shorttitle = {The {Emerging} {Media} {System} in {China}},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2011.572446},
	doi = {10.1080/10584609.2011.572446},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Political Communication},
	author = {Tang, Wenfang and Iyengar, Shanto},
	month = jul,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {263--267},
	file = {Tang and Iyengar - 2011 - The Emerging Media System in China Implications f.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/HQVQDADX/Tang and Iyengar - 2011 - The Emerging Media System in China Implications f.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{guriev_theory_2020,
	title = {A theory of informational autocracy},
	volume = {186},
	issn = {00472727},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0047272720300220},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104158},
	abstract = {We develop an informational theory of autocracy. Dictators survive not by means of force or ideology but because they convince the public—rightly or wrongly—that they are competent. Citizens do not observe the leader's type but infer it from signals in their living standards, state propaganda, and messages sent by an informed elite via independent media. If citizens conclude that the leader is incompetent, they overthrow him. The dictator can invest in making convincing state propaganda, censoring independent media, co-opting the elite, or equipping police to repress attempted uprisings—but he must finance such spending at the expense of the public's consumption. We show that informational autocracies prevail over old-style, overtly violent dictatorships when the informed elite is sufficiently large but are replaced by democracies when elites are too numerous to be bribed or censored. The theory provides insight into various soft authoritarian regimes around the world and suggests a logic of modernization behind recent global political trends.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Public Economics},
	author = {Guriev, Sergei and Treisman, Daniel},
	month = jun,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {104158},
	file = {Guriev and Treisman - 2020 - A theory of informational autocracy.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZQY388J3/Guriev and Treisman - 2020 - A theory of informational autocracy.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{huang_pathology_2018,
	title = {The {Pathology} of {Hard} {Propaganda}},
	volume = {80},
	issn = {0022-3816, 1468-2508},
	url = {https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/696863},
	doi = {10.1086/696863},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {The Journal of Politics},
	author = {Huang, Haifeng},
	month = jul,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {1034--1038},
	file = {Huang - 2018 - The Pathology of Hard Propaganda.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JX5RXEI5/Huang - 2018 - The Pathology of Hard Propaganda.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bowe_after_2021,
	title = {After the revolution: {Tunisian} journalism students and a news media in transition},
	issn = {1464-8849, 1741-3001},
	shorttitle = {After the revolution},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14648849211018942},
	doi = {10.1177/14648849211018942},
	abstract = {A decade after the Jasmine Revolution ushered in the Arab Spring, Tunisia remains a bright spot for democratic reform and press freedom in the Middle East and North Africa. However, this transition is still tentative, and the reforms remain fragile. This study examines Tunisian journalism students ( N = 193) to understand their motivations for earning a degree in the field and how they conceptualize journalism’s role in society. By studying Tunisian journalism students’ motivations for entering this transforming field, and how those students perceive their pre-professional roles, we may gain a glimpse into how they are internalizing the lessons of the revolution. The results of this survey showed that students emphasized social responsibility motivations for studying journalism. Participants most strongly valued the role of journalists in promoting tolerance and cultural diversity, educating the audience, letting people express their views, reporting things as they are, and supporting national development. These results suggest that Tunisian students view their work as assuming monitorial and interventionist roles.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journalism},
	author = {Bowe, Brian J. and Nielsen, Carolyn and Kooli, Arwa and Somai, Rafia and Gosen, Joe},
	month = may,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {146488492110189},
	file = {Bowe et al. - 2021 - After the revolution Tunisian journalism students.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/9XDGSGNI/Bowe et al. - 2021 - After the revolution Tunisian journalism students.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{porto_tv_2007,
	title = {{TV} news and political change in {Brazil}: {The} impact of democratization on {TV} {Globo}'s journalism},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1464-8849, 1741-3001},
	shorttitle = {{TV} news and political change in {Brazil}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1464884907078656},
	doi = {10.1177/1464884907078656},
	abstract = {The article analyzes the changes that since the mid-1990s have transformed journalistic practices in Brazil’s most powerful media institution. More especially, the aim is to investigate the transformation of TV Globo’s News Division and situate this process in relation to the democratization of Brazilian politics and society. Based on content analysis of Jornal Nacional, TV Globo’s main newscast, and on in-depth interviews with four senior journalists of the network, the article stresses how the new conditions brought by political and social democratization help explain these changes. In particular, the deepening of democracy in Brazil created new constraints that forced TV Globo to overcome a tradition of more explicit political biases and to minimize the initial trend toward tabloidization with an increase of hard news coverage.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journalism},
	author = {Porto, Mauro},
	month = aug,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {363--384},
	file = {Porto - 2007 - TV news and political change in Brazil The impact.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/XJ8JCI8Y/Porto - 2007 - TV news and political change in Brazil The impact.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@techreport{guriev_how_2015,
	address = {Cambridge, MA},
	title = {How {Modern} {Dictators} {Survive}: {An} {Informational} {Theory} of the {New} {Authoritarianism}},
	shorttitle = {How {Modern} {Dictators} {Survive}},
	url = {http://www.nber.org/papers/w21136.pdf},
	abstract = {We develop an informational theory of dictatorship. Dictators survive not because of their use of force or ideology but because they convince the public—rightly or wrongly—that they are competent. Citizens do not observe the dictator's type but infer it from signals inherent in their living standards, state propaganda, and messages sent by an informed elite via independent media. If citizens conclude that the dictator is incompetent, they overthrow him in a revolution. The dictator can invest in making convincing state propaganda, censoring independent media, co-opting the elite, or equipping police to repress attempted uprisings—but he must finance such spending at the expense of the public's living standards. We show that incompetent dictators can survive as long as economic shocks are not too large. Moreover, their reputations for competence may grow over time—even if living standards fall. Censorship and co-optation of the elite are substitutes, but both are complements of propaganda. Due to coordination failure among members of the elite, multiple equilibria emerge. In some equilibria the ruler uses propaganda and co-opts the elite; in others, propaganda is combined with censorship. In the equilibrium with censorship, difficult economic times prompt higher relative spending on censorship and propaganda. The results illuminate tradeoffs faced by various recent dictatorships.},
	language = {en},
	number = {w21136},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	institution = {National Bureau of Economic Research},
	author = {Guriev, Sergei and Treisman, Daniel},
	month = apr,
	year = {2015},
	doi = {10.3386/w21136},
	pages = {w21136},
	file = {Guriev and Treisman - 2015 - How Modern Dictators Survive An Informational The.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/K2A3WTUB/Guriev and Treisman - 2015 - How Modern Dictators Survive An Informational The.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{wang_when_2021,
	title = {When “{Fake} {News}” {Becomes} {Real}: {The} {Consequences} of {False} {Government} {Denials} in an {Authoritarian} {Country}},
	volume = {54},
	issn = {0010-4140, 1552-3829},
	shorttitle = {When “{Fake} {News}” {Becomes} {Real}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414020957672},
	doi = {10.1177/0010414020957672},
	abstract = {Governments around the world, particularly authoritarian ones, often deny inconvenient or unfavorable information, calling it fake news or false rumor, and yet what was denied often turns out to be true eventually. How will citizens react when the initial “fake news” is verified to be real? What are the consequences of false government denials on government credibility and citizen satisfaction? Using a survey experiment in China and a follow-up survey, we find that citizens can be persuaded by the authorities’ denials and reduce their belief in a piece of news that has been declared “fake.” But when the denied news turns out to be real, citizens will reduce their belief not only in the denial at hand but also in a similar denial in the future and reduce their satisfaction with the government. Thus, false denials have both immediate and lasting effects on government credibility and can erode citizen satisfaction with the government.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Comparative Political Studies},
	author = {Wang, Chengli and Huang, Haifeng},
	month = apr,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {753--778},
	file = {Wang and Huang - 2021 - When “Fake News” Becomes Real The Consequences of.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/EC7PIC8Y/Wang and Huang - 2021 - When “Fake News” Becomes Real The Consequences of.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{egorov_why_2009-1,
	title = {Why {Resource}-poor {Dictators} {Allow} {Freer} {Media}: {A} {Theory} and {Evidence} from {Panel} {Data}},
	volume = {103},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	shorttitle = {Why {Resource}-poor {Dictators} {Allow} {Freer} {Media}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055409990219/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0003055409990219},
	abstract = {Every dictator dislikes free media. Yet, many nondemocratic countries have partially free or almost free media. In this article, we develop a theory of media freedom in dictatorships and provide systematic statistical evidence in support of this theory. In our model, free media allow a dictator to provide incentives to bureaucrats and therefore to improve the quality of government. The importance of this benefit varies with the natural resource endowment. In resource-rich countries, bureaucratic incentives are less important for the dictator; hence, media freedom is less likely to emerge. Using panel data, we show that controlling for country fixed effects, media are less free in oil-rich economies, with the effect especially pronounced in nondemocratic regimes. These results are robust to model specification and the inclusion of various controls, including the level of economic development, democracy, country size, size of government, and others.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {Egorov, Georgy and Guriev, Sergei and Sonin, Konstantin},
	month = nov,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {645--668},
	file = {Egorov et al. - 2009 - Why Resource-poor Dictators Allow Freer Media A T.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JFMK3YEA/Egorov et al. - 2009 - Why Resource-poor Dictators Allow Freer Media A T.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{zotova_multilingual_nodate,
	title = {Multilingual {Stance} {Detection}: {The} {Catalonia} {Independence} {Corpus}},
	abstract = {Stance detection aims to determine the attitude of a given text with respect to a specific topic or claim. While stance detection has been fairly well researched in the last years, most the work has been focused on English. This is mainly due to the relative lack of annotated data in other languages. The TW-10 Referendum Dataset released at IberEval 2018 is a previous effort to provide multilingual stance-annotated data in Catalan and Spanish. Unfortunately, the TW-10 Catalan subset is extremely imbalanced. This paper addresses these issues by presenting a new multilingual dataset for stance detection in Twitter for the Catalan and Spanish languages, with the aim of facilitating research on stance detection in multilingual and cross-lingual settings. The dataset is annotated with stance towards one topic, namely, the independence of Catalonia. We also provide a semi-automatic method to annotate the dataset based on a categorization of Twitter users. We experiment on the new corpus with a number of supervised approaches, including linear classifiers and deep learning methods. Comparison of our new corpus with the with the TW-1O dataset shows both the benefits and potential of a well balanced corpus for multilingual and cross-lingual research on stance detection. Finally, we establish new state-of-the-art results on the TW-10 dataset, both for Catalan and Spanish.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Zotova, Elena and Agerri, Rodrigo},
	pages = {8},
	file = {Zotova and Agerri - Multilingual Stance Detection The Catalonia Indep.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/J77LYQSE/Zotova and Agerri - Multilingual Stance Detection The Catalonia Indep.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{abu_farha_comparative_2021,
	title = {A comparative study of effective approaches for {Arabic} sentiment analysis},
	volume = {58},
	issn = {03064573},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306457320309316},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ipm.2020.102438},
	abstract = {Sentiment analysis (SA) is a natural language processing (NLP) application that aims to analyse and identify sentiment within a piece of text. Arabic SA started to receive more attention in the last decade with many approaches showing some effectiveness for detecting sentiment on mul­ tiple datasets. While there have been some surveys summarising some of the approaches for Arabic SA in literature, most of these approaches are reported on different datasets, which makes it difficult to identify the most effective approaches among those. In addition, those approaches do not cover the recent advances in NLP that use transformers. This paper presents a compre­ hensive comparative study on the most effective approaches used for Arabic sentiment analysis. We re-implement most of the existing approaches for Arabic SA and test their effectiveness on three of the most popular benchmark datasets for Arabic SA. Further, we examine the use of transformer-based language models for Arabic SA and show their superior performance compared to the existing approaches, where the best model achieves F-score scores of 0.69, 0.76, and 0.92 on the SemEval, ASTD, and ArSAS benchmark datasets. We also apply an extensive analysis of the possible reasons for failures, which show the limitations of the existing annotated Arabic SA datasets, and the challenge of sarcasm that is prominent in Arabic dialects. Finally, we highlight the main gaps in Arabic sentiment analysis research and suggest the most in-need future research directions in this area.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Information Processing \& Management},
	author = {Abu Farha, Ibrahim and Magdy, Walid},
	month = mar,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {102438},
	file = {Abu Farha and Magdy - 2021 - A comparative study of effective approaches for Ar.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/DW9KKTMT/Abu Farha and Magdy - 2021 - A comparative study of effective approaches for Ar.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{karande_stance_2021,
	title = {Stance detection with {BERT} embeddings for credibility analysis of information on social media},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {2376-5992},
	url = {https://peerj.com/articles/cs-467},
	doi = {10.7717/peerj-cs.467},
	abstract = {The evolution of electronic media is a mixed blessing. Due to the easy access, low cost, and faster reach of the information, people search out and devour news from online social networks. In contrast, the increasing acceptance of social media reporting leads to the spread of fake news. This is a minacious problem that causes disputes and endangers the societal stability and harmony. Fake news spread has gained attention from researchers due to its vicious nature. proliferation of misinformation in all media, from the internet to cable news, paid advertising and local news outlets, has made it essential for people to identify the misinformation and sort through the facts. Researchers are trying to analyze the credibility of information and curtail false information on such platforms. Credibility is the believability of the piece of information at hand. Analyzing the credibility of fake news is challenging due to the intent of its creation and the polychromatic nature of the news. In this work, we propose a model for detecting fake news. Our method investigates the content of the news at the early stage i.e., when the news is published but is yet to be disseminated through social media. Our work interprets the content with automatic feature extraction and the relevance of the text pieces. In summary, we introduce stance as one of the features along with the content of the article and employ the pre-trained contextualized word embeddings BERT to obtain the state-of-art results for fake news detection. The experiment conducted on the real-world dataset indicates that our model outperforms the previous work and enables fake news detection with an accuracy of 95.32\%.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {PeerJ Computer Science},
	author = {Karande, Hema and Walambe, Rahee and Benjamin, Victor and Kotecha, Ketan and Raghu, Ts},
	month = apr,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {e467},
	file = {Karande et al. - 2021 - Stance detection with BERT embeddings for credibil.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/Z3ME4E5Y/Karande et al. - 2021 - Stance detection with BERT embeddings for credibil.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{schiller_stance_2021,
	title = {Stance {Detection} {Benchmark}: {How} {Robust} is {Your} {Stance} {Detection}?},
	issn = {0933-1875, 1610-1987},
	shorttitle = {Stance {Detection} {Benchmark}},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13218-021-00714-w},
	doi = {10.1007/s13218-021-00714-w},
	abstract = {Stance detection (StD) aims to detect an author’s stance towards a certain topic and has become a key component in applications like fake news detection, claim validation, or argument search. However, while stance is easily detected by humans, machine learning (ML) models are clearly falling short of this task. Given the major differences in dataset sizes and framing of StD (e.g. number of classes and inputs), ML models trained on a single dataset usually generalize poorly to other domains. Hence, we introduce a StD benchmark that allows to compare ML models against a wide variety of heterogeneous StD datasets to evaluate them for generalizability and robustness. Moreover, the framework is designed for easy integration of new datasets and probing methods for robustness. Amongst several baseline models, we define a model that learns from all ten StD datasets of various domains in a multi-dataset learning (MDL) setting and present new state-of-the-art results on five of the datasets. Yet, the models still perform well below human capabilities and even simple perturbations of the original test samples (adversarial attacks) severely hurt the performance of MDL models. Deeper investigation suggests overfitting on dataset biases as the main reason for the decreased robustness. Our analysis emphasizes the need of focus on robustness and de-biasing strategies in multi-task learning approaches. To foster research on this important topic, we release the dataset splits, code, and fine-tuned weights.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {KI - Künstliche Intelligenz},
	author = {Schiller, Benjamin and Daxenberger, Johannes and Gurevych, Iryna},
	month = mar,
	year = {2021},
	file = {Schiller et al. - 2021 - Stance Detection Benchmark How Robust is Your Sta.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/D2RUCST8/Schiller et al. - 2021 - Stance Detection Benchmark How Robust is Your Sta.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{aldayel_stance_2021,
	title = {Stance detection on social media: {State} of the art and trends},
	volume = {58},
	issn = {03064573},
	shorttitle = {Stance detection on social media},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306457321000960},
	doi = {10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102597},
	abstract = {Stance detection on social media is an emerging opinion mining paradigm for various social and political applications in which sentiment analysis may be sub-optimal. There has been a growing research interest for developing effective methods for stance detection methods varying among multiple communities including natural language processing, web science, and social computing, where each modeled stance detection in different ways. In this paper, we survey the work on stance detection across those communities and present an exhaustive review of stance detection techniques on social media, including the task definition, different types of targets in stance detection, features set used, and various machine learning approaches applied. Our survey reports state-of-the-art results on the existing benchmark datasets on stance detection, and discusses the most effective approaches. In addition, we explore the emerging trends and different applications of stance detection on social media, including opinion mining and prediction and recently using it for fake news detection. The study concludes by discussing the gaps in the current existing research and highlights the possible future directions for stance detection on social media.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Information Processing \& Management},
	author = {ALDayel, Abeer and Magdy, Walid},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {102597},
	file = {ALDayel and Magdy - 2021 - Stance detection on social media State of the art.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/D2UCISAW/ALDayel and Magdy - 2021 - Stance detection on social media State of the art.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{garg_word_2018-1,
	title = {Word embeddings quantify 100 years of gender and ethnic stereotypes},
	volume = {115},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1720347115},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1720347115},
	abstract = {Word embeddings are a powerful machine-learning framework that represents each English word by a vector. The geometric relationship between these vectors captures meaningful semantic relationships between the corresponding words. In this paper, we develop a framework to demonstrate how the temporal dynamics of the embedding helps to quantify changes in stereotypes and attitudes toward women and ethnic minorities in the 20th and 21st centuries in the United States. We integrate word embeddings trained on 100 y of text data with the US Census to show that changes in the embedding track closely with demographic and occupation shifts over time. The embedding captures societal shifts—e.g., the women’s movement in the 1960s and Asian immigration into the United States—and also illuminates how specific adjectives and occupations became more closely associated with certain populations over time. Our framework for temporal analysis of word embedding opens up a fruitful intersection between machine learning and quantitative social science.},
	language = {en},
	number = {16},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Garg, Nikhil and Schiebinger, Londa and Jurafsky, Dan and Zou, James},
	month = apr,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {E3635--E3644},
	file = {Garg et al. - 2018 - Word embeddings quantify 100 years of gender and e.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/E55LN6R4/Garg et al. - 2018 - Word embeddings quantify 100 years of gender and e.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{goldberg_word2vec_2014,
	title = {word2vec {Explained}: deriving {Mikolov} et al.'s negative-sampling word-embedding method},
	shorttitle = {word2vec {Explained}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1402.3722},
	abstract = {The word2vec software of Tomas Mikolov and colleagues (https://code.google.com/p/word2vec/ ) has gained a lot of traction lately, and provides state-of-the-art word embeddings. The learning models behind the software are described in two research papers. We found the description of the models in these papers to be somewhat cryptic and hard to follow. While the motivations and presentation may be obvious to the neural-networks language-modeling crowd, we had to struggle quite a bit to figure out the rationale behind the equations. This note is an attempt to explain equation (4) (negative sampling) in "Distributed Representations of Words and Phrases and their Compositionality" by Tomas Mikolov, Ilya Sutskever, Kai Chen, Greg Corrado and Jeffrey Dean.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {arXiv:1402.3722 [cs, stat]},
	author = {Goldberg, Yoav and Levy, Omer},
	month = feb,
	year = {2014},
	note = {arXiv: 1402.3722},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Machine Learning, Statistics - Machine Learning},
	file = {Goldberg and Levy - 2014 - word2vec Explained deriving Mikolov et al.'s nega.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/E3GTCBQ6/Goldberg and Levy - 2014 - word2vec Explained deriving Mikolov et al.'s nega.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{joulin_fasttextzip_2016,
	title = {{FastText}.zip: {Compressing} text classification models},
	shorttitle = {{FastText}.zip},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1612.03651},
	abstract = {We consider the problem of producing compact architectures for text classification, such that the full model fits in a limited amount of memory. After considering different solutions inspired by the hashing literature, we propose a method built upon product quantization to store word embeddings. While the original technique leads to a loss in accuracy, we adapt this method to circumvent quantization artefacts. Our experiments carried out on several benchmarks show that our approach typically requires two orders of magnitude less memory than fastText while being only slightly inferior with respect to accuracy. As a result, it outperforms the state of the art by a good margin in terms of the compromise between memory usage and accuracy.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {arXiv:1612.03651 [cs]},
	author = {Joulin, Armand and Grave, Edouard and Bojanowski, Piotr and Douze, Matthijs and Jégou, Hérve and Mikolov, Tomas},
	month = dec,
	year = {2016},
	note = {arXiv: 1612.03651},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Machine Learning},
	file = {Joulin et al. - 2016 - FastText.zip Compressing text classification mode.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/R8UG4HST/Joulin et al. - 2016 - FastText.zip Compressing text classification mode.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{stoltz_concept_2019-1,
	title = {Concept {Mover}’s {Distance}: measuring concept engagement via word embeddings in texts},
	volume = {2},
	issn = {2432-2717, 2432-2725},
	shorttitle = {Concept {Mover}’s {Distance}},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42001-019-00048-6},
	doi = {10.1007/s42001-019-00048-6},
	abstract = {We propose a method for measuring a text’s engagement with a focal concept using distributional representations of the meaning of words. More specifically, this measure relies on word mover’s distance, which uses word embeddings to determine similarities between two documents. In our approach, which we call Concept Mover’s Distance, a document is measured by the minimum distance the words in the document need to travel to arrive at the position of a “pseudo document” consisting of only words denoting a focal concept. This approach captures the prototypical structure of concepts, is fairly robust to pruning sparse terms as well as variation in text lengths within a corpus, and with pre-trained embeddings, can be used even when terms denoting concepts are absent from corpora and can be applied to bag-of-words datasets. We close by outlining some limitations of the proposed method as well as opportunities for future research.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Computational Social Science},
	author = {Stoltz, Dustin S. and Taylor, Marshall A.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {293--313},
	file = {Stoltz and Taylor - 2019 - Concept Mover’s Distance measuring concept engage.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/2KM5CXC9/Stoltz and Taylor - 2019 - Concept Mover’s Distance measuring concept engage.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{stoltz_cultural_nodate,
	title = {Cultural {Cartography} with {Word} {Embeddings}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Stoltz, Dustin S and Taylor, Marshall A},
	pages = {54},
	file = {Stoltz and Taylor - Cultural Cartography with Word Embeddings.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/VCX3IVNX/Stoltz and Taylor - Cultural Cartography with Word Embeddings.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rodman_timely_2020-1,
	title = {A {Timely} {Intervention}: {Tracking} the {Changing} {Meanings} of {Political} {Concepts} with {Word} {Vectors}},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	shorttitle = {A {Timely} {Intervention}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198719000238/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/pan.2019.23},
	abstract = {Word vectorization is an emerging text-as-data method that shows great promise for automating the analysis of semantics—here, the cultural meanings of words—in large volumes of text. Yet successes with this method have largely been confined to massive corpora where the meanings of words are presumed to be fixed. In political science applications, however, many corpora are comparatively small and many interesting questions hinge on the recognition that meaning changes over time. Together, these two facts raise vexing methodological challenges. Can word vectors trace the changing cultural meanings of words in typical small corpora use cases? I test four time-sensitive implementations of word vectors (word2vec) against a gold standard developed from a modest data set of years of newspaper coverage. I find that one implementation method clearly outperforms the others in matching human assessments of how public dialogues around equality in America have changed over time. In addition, I suggest best practices for using word2vec to study small corpora for time series questions, including bootstrap resampling of documents and pretraining of vectors. I close by showing that word2vec allows granular analysis of the changing meaning of words, an advance over other common text-as-data methods for semantic research questions.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Rodman, Emma},
	month = jan,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {87--111},
	file = {Rodman - 2020 - A Timely Intervention Tracking the Changing Meani.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/V5KIQGVK/Rodman - 2020 - A Timely Intervention Tracking the Changing Meani.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{soni_abolitionist_2021-1,
	title = {Abolitionist {Networks}: {Modeling} {Language} {Change} in {Nineteenth}-{Century} {Activist} {Newspapers}},
	shorttitle = {Abolitionist {Networks}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2103.07538},
	abstract = {The abolitionist movement of the nineteenth-century United States remains among the most significant social and political movements in US history. Abolitionist newspapers played a crucial role in spreading information and shaping public opinion around a range of issues relating to the abolition of slavery. These newspapers also serve as a primary source of information about the movement for scholars today, resulting in powerful new accounts of the movement and its leaders. This paper supplements recent qualitative work on the role of women in abolition’s vanguard, as well as the role of the Black press, with a quantitative text modeling approach. Using diachronic word embeddings, we identify which newspapers tended to lead lexical semantic innovations — the introduction of new usages of specific words — and which newspapers tended to follow. We then aggregate the evidence across hundreds of changes into a weighted network with the newspapers as nodes; directed edge weights represent the frequency with which each newspaper led the other in the adoption of a lexical semantic change. Analysis of this network reveals pathways of lexical semantic influence, distinguishing leaders from followers, as well as others who stood apart from the semantic changes that swept through this period. More specifically, we find that two newspapers edited by women — THE PROVINCIAL FREEMAN and THE LILY — led a large number of semantic changes in our corpus, lending additional credence to the argument that a multiracial coalition of women led the abolitionist movement in terms of both thought and action. It also contributes additional complexity to the scholarship that has sought to tease apart the relation of the abolitionist movement to the women’s suffrage movement, and the vexed racial politics that characterized their relation.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {arXiv:2103.07538 [cs]},
	author = {Soni, Sandeep and Klein, Lauren and Eisenstein, Jacob},
	month = mar,
	year = {2021},
	note = {arXiv: 2103.07538},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Computers and Society, Computer Science - Digital Libraries, Computer Science - Social and Information Networks},
	file = {Soni et al. - 2021 - Abolitionist Networks Modeling Language Change in.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/QGEE69Q8/Soni et al. - 2021 - Abolitionist Networks Modeling Language Change in.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lenci_distributional_2018,
	title = {Distributional {Models} of {Word} {Meaning}},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {2333-9683, 2333-9691},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030514-125254},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030514-125254},
	abstract = {Distributional semantics is a usage-based model of meaning, based on the assumption that the statistical distribution of linguistic items in context plays a key role in characterizing their semantic behavior. Distributional models build semantic representations by extracting co-occurrences from corpora and have become a mainstream research paradigm in computational linguistics. In this review, I present the state of the art in distributional semantics, focusing on its assets and limits as a model of meaning and as a method for semantic analysis.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Annual Review of Linguistics},
	author = {Lenci, Alessandro},
	month = jan,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {151--171},
	file = {Lenci - 2018 - Distributional Models of Word Meaning.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/BGLJDWN8/Lenci - 2018 - Distributional Models of Word Meaning.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{wilkerson_large-scale_2017,
	title = {Large-{Scale} {Computerized} {Text} {Analysis} in {Political} {Science}: {Opportunities} and {Challenges}},
	volume = {20},
	issn = {1094-2939, 1545-1577},
	shorttitle = {Large-{Scale} {Computerized} {Text} {Analysis} in {Political} {Science}},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-polisci-052615-025542},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-polisci-052615-025542},
	abstract = {Text has always been an important data source in political science. What has changed in recent years is the feasibility of investigating large amounts of text quantitatively. The internet provides political scientists with more data than their mentors could have imagined, and the research community is providing accessible text analysis software packages, along with training and support. As a result, text-as-data research is becoming mainstream in political science. Scholars are tapping new data sources, they are employing more diverse methods, and they are becoming critical consumers of findings based on those methods. In this article, we first describe the four stages of a typical text-as-data project. We then review recent political science applications and explore one important methodological challenge—topic model instability—in greater detail.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Annual Review of Political Science},
	author = {Wilkerson, John and Casas, Andreu},
	month = may,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {529--544},
	file = {Wilkerson and Casas - 2017 - Large-Scale Computerized Text Analysis in Politica.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/89Y3XFTD/Wilkerson and Casas - 2017 - Large-Scale Computerized Text Analysis in Politica.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{darwish_arabic_2014,
	title = {Arabic {Information} {Retrieval}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {1554-0669, 1554-0677},
	url = {http://www.nowpublishers.com/articles/foundations-and-trends-in-information-retrieval/INR-031},
	doi = {10.1561/1500000031},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Foundations and Trends® in Information Retrieval},
	author = {Darwish, Kareem},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {239--342},
	file = {Darwish - 2014 - Arabic Information Retrieval.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZTABX7GF/Darwish - 2014 - Arabic Information Retrieval.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{soliman_aravec_2017-1,
	title = {{AraVec}: {A} set of {Arabic} {Word} {Embedding} {Models} for use in {Arabic} {NLP}},
	volume = {117},
	issn = {18770509},
	shorttitle = {{AraVec}},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877050917321749},
	doi = {10.1016/j.procs.2017.10.117},
	abstract = {Advancements in neural networks have led to developments in fields like computer vision, speech recognition and natural language processing (NLP). One of the most influential recent developments in NLP is the use of word embeddings, where words are represented as vectors in a continuous space, capturing many syntactic and semantic relations among them. AraVec is a pre-trained distributed word representation (word embedding) open source project which aims to provide the Arabic NLP research community with free to use and powerful word embedding models. The first version of AraVec provides six different word embedding models built on top of three different Arabic content domains; Tweets, World Wide Web pages and Wikipedia Arabic articles. The total number of tokens used to build the models amounts to more than 3,300,000,000. This paper describes the resources used for building the models, the employed data cleaning techniques, the carried out preprocessing step, as well as the details of the employed word embedding creation techniques.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Procedia Computer Science},
	author = {Soliman, Abu Bakr and Eissa, Kareem and El-Beltagy, Samhaa R.},
	year = {2017},
	pages = {256--265},
	file = {Soliman et al. - 2017 - AraVec A set of Arabic Word Embedding Models for .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/K4YCWP37/Soliman et al. - 2017 - AraVec A set of Arabic Word Embedding Models for .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lucas_computer-assisted_2015-1,
	title = {Computer-{Assisted} {Text} {Analysis} for {Comparative} {Politics}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198700011736/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1093/pan/mpu019},
	abstract = {Recent advances in research tools for the systematic analysis of textual data are enabling exciting new research throughout the social sciences. For comparative politics, scholars who are often interested in non-English and possibly multilingual textual datasets, these advances may be difficult to access. This article discusses practical issues that arise in the processing, management, translation, and analysis of textual data with a particular focus on how procedures differ across languages. These procedures are combined in two applied examples of automated text analysis using the recently introduced Structural Topic Model. We also show how the model can be used to analyze data that have been translated into a single language via machine translation tools. All the methods we describe here are implemented in open-source software packages available from the authors.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Lucas, Christopher and Nielsen, Richard A. and Roberts, Margaret E. and Stewart, Brandon M. and Storer, Alex and Tingley, Dustin},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {254--277},
	file = {Lucas et al. - 2015 - Computer-Assisted Text Analysis for Comparative Po.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/RPGPFPV9/Lucas et al. - 2015 - Computer-Assisted Text Analysis for Comparative Po.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{koehler-derrick_supply_nodate,
	title = {The {Supply} of {Conspiracy} {Theories} in {State}-controlled {Media}},
	abstract = {When, and why, do conspiracy theories appear in state-controlled media? We argue that regime type and political threats combine to explain the supply of conspiracy theories by the state. Regimes under threat can stave off dissent by promoting conspiracy theories but this can backfire and damage regime legitimacy. These costs make governments that do not feel threatened unlikely to circulate conspiracy theories, while governments that feel threatened will. Given the same level of threat, democratic governments supply fewer conspiracy theories than autocrats because they are more concerned with legitimacy. We test this argument by comprehensively examining conspiracy theories in Egypt’s stated-owned newspaper between 1998 and 2018. The state-controlled newspaper responds to threatening events by publishing more conspiracy theories than its independent counterpart. However, this relationship is moderated by changes in regime: the state-controlled media promoted fewer conspiracy theories during periods of low threat and democracy.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Koehler-Derrick, Gabriel and Nielsen, Richard A and Romney, David},
	pages = {34},
	file = {Koehler-Derrick et al. - The Supply of Conspiracy Theories in State-control.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CFW56SYL/Koehler-Derrick et al. - The Supply of Conspiracy Theories in State-control.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lansdall-welfare_content_2017-1,
	title = {Content analysis of 150 years of {British} periodicals},
	volume = {114},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1606380114},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1606380114},
	abstract = {Previous studies have shown that it is possible to detect macroscopic patterns of cultural change over periods of centuries by analyzing large textual time series, specifically digitized books. This method promises to empower scholars with a quantitative and data-driven tool to study culture and society, but its power has been limited by the use of data from books and simple analytics based essentially on word counts. This study addresses these problems by assembling a vast corpus of regional newspapers from the United Kingdom, incorporating very fine-grained geographical and temporal information that is not available for books. The corpus spans 150 years and is formed by millions of articles, representing 14\% of all British regional outlets of the period. Simple content analysis of this corpus allowed us to detect specific events, like wars, epidemics, coronations, or conclaves, with high accuracy, whereas the use of more refined techniques from artificial intelligence enabled us to move beyond counting words by detecting references to named entities. These techniques allowed us to observe both a systematic underrepresentation and a steady increase of women in the news during the 20th century and the change of geographic focus for various concepts. We also estimate the dates when electricity overtook steam and trains overtook horses as a means of transportation, both around the year 1900, along with observing other cultural transitions. We believe that these data-driven approaches can complement the traditional method of close reading in detecting trends of continuity and change in historical corpora.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Lansdall-Welfare, Thomas and Sudhahar, Saatviga and Thompson, James and Lewis, Justin and {FindMyPast Newspaper Team} and Cristianini, Nello},
	month = jan,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {E457--E465},
	file = {Lansdall-Welfare et al. - 2017 - Content analysis of 150 years of British periodica.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/U2TC44JU/Lansdall-Welfare et al. - 2017 - Content analysis of 150 years of British periodica.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hamilton_diachronic_2018-1,
	title = {Diachronic {Word} {Embeddings} {Reveal} {Statistical} {Laws} of {Semantic} {Change}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1605.09096},
	abstract = {Understanding how words change their meanings over time is key to models of language and cultural evolution, but historical data on meaning is scarce, making theories hard to develop and test. Word embeddings show promise as a diachronic tool, but have not been carefully evaluated. We develop a robust methodology for quantifying semantic change by evaluating word embeddings (PPMI, SVD, word2vec) against known historical changes. We then use this methodology to reveal statistical laws of semantic evolution. Using six historical corpora spanning four languages and two centuries, we propose two quantitative laws of semantic change: (i) the law of conformity—the rate of semantic change scales with an inverse power-law of word frequency; (ii) the law of innovation—independent of frequency, words that are more polysemous have higher rates of semantic change.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {arXiv:1605.09096 [cs]},
	author = {Hamilton, William L. and Leskovec, Jure and Jurafsky, Dan},
	month = oct,
	year = {2018},
	note = {arXiv: 1605.09096},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language},
	file = {Hamilton et al. - 2018 - Diachronic Word Embeddings Reveal Statistical Laws.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8TM3U2JQ/Hamilton et al. - 2018 - Diachronic Word Embeddings Reveal Statistical Laws.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rodriguez_word_2021,
	title = {Word {Embeddings}: {What} works, what doesn't, and how to tell the difference for applied research},
	issn = {0022-3816, 1468-2508},
	shorttitle = {Word {Embeddings}},
	url = {https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/715162},
	doi = {10.1086/715162},
	abstract = {Word embeddings are becoming popular for political science research, yet we know little about their properties and performance. To help scholars seeking to use these techniques, we explore the effects of key parameter choices—including context window length, embedding vector dimensions and pre-trained vs locally fit variants—on the efficiency and quality of inferences possible with these models. Reassuringly we show that results are generally robust to such choices for political corpora of various sizes and in various languages. Beyond reporting extensive technical findings, we provide a novel crowdsourced “Turing test”-style method for examining the relative performance of any two models that produce substantive, text-based outputs. Our results are encouraging: popular, easily available pre-trained embeddings perform at a level close to—or surpassing—both human coders and more complicated locally-fit models. For completeness, we provide best practice advice for cases where local fitting is required.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {The Journal of Politics},
	author = {Rodriguez, Pedro and Spirling, Arthur},
	month = may,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {715162},
	file = {Rodriguez and Spirling - 2021 - Word Embeddings What works, what doesn't, and how.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/T2989Y7V/Rodriguez and Spirling - 2021 - Word Embeddings What works, what doesn't, and how.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mendelsohn_framework_2020,
	title = {A {Framework} for the {Computational} {Linguistic} {Analysis} of {Dehumanization}},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2624-8212},
	url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/frai.2020.00055/full},
	doi = {10.3389/frai.2020.00055},
	abstract = {Dehumanization is a pernicious psychological process that often leads to extreme intergroup bias, hate speech, and violence aimed at targeted social groups. Despite these serious consequences and the wealth of available data, dehumanization has not yet been computationally studied on a large scale. Drawing upon social psychology research, we create a computational linguistic framework for analyzing dehumanizing language by identifying linguistic correlates of salient components of dehumanization. We then apply this framework to analyze discussions of LGBTQ people in the New York Times from 1986 to 2015. Overall, we find increasingly humanizing descriptions of LGBTQ people over time. However, we find that the label homosexual has emerged to be much more strongly associated with dehumanizing attitudes than other labels, such as gay. Our proposed techniques highlight processes of linguistic variation and change in discourses surrounding marginalized groups. Furthermore, the ability to analyze dehumanizing language at a large scale has implications for automatically detecting and understanding media bias as well as abusive language online.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence},
	author = {Mendelsohn, Julia and Tsvetkov, Yulia and Jurafsky, Dan},
	month = aug,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {55},
	file = {Mendelsohn et al. - 2020 - A Framework for the Computational Linguistic Analy.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/SF8LU8VH/Mendelsohn et al. - 2020 - A Framework for the Computational Linguistic Analy.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{hall_studying_2008,
	address = {Honolulu, Hawaii},
	title = {Studying the history of ideas using topic models},
	url = {http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1613715.1613763},
	doi = {10.3115/1613715.1613763},
	abstract = {How can the development of ideas in a scientific field be studied over time? We apply unsupervised topic modeling to the ACL Anthology to analyze historical trends in the field of Computational Linguistics from 1978 to 2006. We induce topic clusters using Latent Dirichlet Allocation, and examine the strength of each topic over time. Our methods find trends in the field including the rise of probabilistic methods starting in 1988, a steady increase in applications, and a sharp decline of research in semantics and understanding between 1978 and 2001, possibly rising again after 2001. We also introduce a model of the diversity of ideas, topic entropy, using it to show that COLING is a more diverse conference than ACL, but that both conferences as well as EMNLP are becoming broader over time. Finally, we apply Jensen-Shannon divergence of topic distributions to show that all three conferences are converging in the topics they cover.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the {Conference} on {Empirical} {Methods} in {Natural} {Language} {Processing} - {EMNLP} '08},
	publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
	author = {Hall, David and Jurafsky, Daniel and Manning, Christopher D.},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {363},
	file = {Hall et al. - 2008 - Studying the history of ideas using topic models.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/2XPJJD8Q/Hall et al. - 2008 - Studying the history of ideas using topic models.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{king_how_2013-1,
	title = {How {Censorship} in {China} {Allows} {Government} {Criticism} but {Silences} {Collective} {Expression}},
	volume = {107},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055413000014/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0003055413000014},
	abstract = {We offer the first large scale, multiple source analysis of the outcome of what may be the most extensive effort to selectively censor human expression ever implemented. To do this, we have devised a system to locate, download, and analyze the content of millions of social media posts originating from nearly 1,400 different social media services all over China before the Chinese government is able to find, evaluate, and censor (i.e., remove from the Internet) the subset they deem objectionable. Using modern computer-assisted text analytic methods that we adapt to and validate in the Chinese language, we compare the substantive content of posts censored to those not censored over time in each of 85 topic areas. Contrary to previous understandings, posts with negative, even vitriolic, criticism of the state, its leaders, and its policies are not more likely to be censored. Instead, we show that the censorship program is aimed at curtailing collective action by silencing comments that represent, reinforce, or spur social mobilization, regardless of content. Censorship is oriented toward attempting to forestall collective activities that are occurring now or may occur in the future—and, as such, seem to clearly expose government intent.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {King, Gary and Pan, Jennifer and Roberts, Margaret E.},
	month = may,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {326--343},
	file = {King et al. - 2013 - How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticis.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/EUX8XUWT/King et al. - 2013 - How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticis.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{king_how_2017-1,
	title = {How the {Chinese} {Government} {Fabricates} {Social} {Media} {Posts} for {Strategic} {Distraction}, {Not} {Engaged} {Argument}},
	volume = {111},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055417000144/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0003055417000144},
	abstract = {The Chinese government has long been suspected of hiring as many as 2 million people to surreptitiously insert huge numbers of pseudonymous and other deceptive writings into the stream of real social media posts, as if they were the genuine opinions of ordinary people. Many academics, and most journalists and activists, claim that these so-called 50c party posts vociferously argue for the government’s side in political and policy debates. As we show, this is also true of most posts openly accused on social media of being 50c. Yet almost no systematic empirical evidence exists for this claim or, more importantly, for the Chinese regime’s strategic objective in pursuing this activity. In the first large-scale empirical analysis of this operation, we show how to identify the secretive authors of these posts, the posts written by them, and their content. We estimate that the government fabricates and posts about 448 million social media comments a year. In contrast to prior claims, we show that the Chinese regime’s strategy is to avoid arguing with skeptics of the party and the government, and to not even discuss controversial issues. We show that the goal of this massive secretive operation is instead to distract the public and change the subject, as most of these posts involve cheerleading for China, the revolutionary history of the Communist Party, or other symbols of the regime. We discuss how these results fit with what is known about the Chinese censorship program and suggest how they may change our broader theoretical understanding of “common knowledge” and information control in authoritarian regimes.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {King, Gary and Pan, Jennifer and Roberts, Margaret E.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {484--501},
	file = {King et al. - 2017 - How the Chinese Government Fabricates Social Media.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/M47K6U4T/King et al. - 2017 - How the Chinese Government Fabricates Social Media.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{dodds_human_2015,
	title = {Human language reveals a universal positivity bias},
	volume = {112},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1411678112},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1411678112},
	abstract = {Using human evaluation of 100,000 words spread across 24 corpora in 10 languages diverse in origin and culture, we present evidence of a deep imprint of human sociality in language, observing that (
              i
              ) the words of natural human language possess a universal positivity bias, (
              ii
              ) the estimated emotional content of words is consistent between languages under translation, and (
              iii
              ) this positivity bias is strongly independent of frequency of word use. Alongside these general regularities, we describe interlanguage variations in the emotional spectrum of languages that allow us to rank corpora. We also show how our word evaluations can be used to construct physical-like instruments for both real-time and offline measurement of the emotional content of large-scale texts.},
	language = {en},
	number = {8},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Dodds, Peter Sheridan and Clark, Eric M. and Desu, Suma and Frank, Morgan R. and Reagan, Andrew J. and Williams, Jake Ryland and Mitchell, Lewis and Harris, Kameron Decker and Kloumann, Isabel M. and Bagrow, James P. and Megerdoomian, Karine and McMahon, Matthew T. and Tivnan, Brian F. and Danforth, Christopher M.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {2389--2394},
	file = {Dodds et al. - 2015 - Human language reveals a universal positivity bias.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/4HMWCNN9/Dodds et al. - 2015 - Human language reveals a universal positivity bias.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{taylor_integrating_2021,
	title = {Integrating semantic directions with concept mover’s distance to measure binary concept engagement},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {2432-2717, 2432-2725},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42001-020-00075-8},
	doi = {10.1007/s42001-020-00075-8},
	abstract = {In an earlier article published in this journal (“Concept Mover’s Distance”, 2019), we proposed a method for measuring concept engagement in texts that uses word embeddings to find the minimum cost necessary for words in an observed document to “travel” to words in a “pseudo-document” consisting only of words denoting a concept of interest. One potential limitation we noted is that, because words associated with opposing concepts will be located close to one another in the embedding space, documents will likely have similar closeness to starkly opposing concepts (e.g., “life” and “death”). Using aggregate vector differences between antonym pairs to extract a direction in the semantic space pointing toward a pole of the binary opposition (following “The Geometry of Culture,” American Sociological Review, 2019), we illustrate how CMD can be used to measure a document’s engagement with binary concepts.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Computational Social Science},
	author = {Taylor, Marshall A. and Stoltz, Dustin S.},
	month = may,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {231--242},
	file = {Taylor and Stoltz - 2021 - Integrating semantic directions with concept mover.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/T3HAJ86P/Taylor and Stoltz - 2021 - Integrating semantic directions with concept mover.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{grave_learning_2018,
	title = {Learning {Word} {Vectors} for 157 {Languages}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1802.06893},
	abstract = {Distributed word representations, or word vectors, have recently been applied to many tasks in natural language processing, leading to state-of-the-art performance. A key ingredient to the successful application of these representations is to train them on very large corpora, and use these pre-trained models in downstream tasks. In this paper, we describe how we trained such high quality word representations for 157 languages. We used two sources of data to train these models: the free online encyclopedia Wikipedia and data from the common crawl project. We also introduce three new word analogy datasets to evaluate these word vectors, for French, Hindi and Polish. Finally, we evaluate our pre-trained word vectors on 10 languages for which evaluation datasets exists, showing very strong performance compared to previous models.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {arXiv:1802.06893 [cs]},
	author = {Grave, Edouard and Bojanowski, Piotr and Gupta, Prakhar and Joulin, Armand and Mikolov, Tomas},
	month = mar,
	year = {2018},
	note = {arXiv: 1802.06893},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Machine Learning},
	file = {Grave et al. - 2018 - Learning Word Vectors for 157 Languages.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/HLBCM7FM/Grave et al. - 2018 - Learning Word Vectors for 157 Languages.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{abu_farha_mazajak_2019,
	address = {Florence, Italy},
	title = {Mazajak: {An} {Online} {Arabic} {Sentiment} {Analyser}},
	shorttitle = {Mazajak},
	url = {https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W19-4621},
	doi = {10.18653/v1/W19-4621},
	abstract = {Sentiment analysis (SA) is one of the most useful natural language processing applications. Literature is flooding with many papers and systems addressing this task, but most of the work is focused on English. In this paper, we present “Mazajak”, an online system for Arabic SA. The system is based on a deep learning model, which achieves state-of-theart results on many Arabic dialect datasets including SemEval 2017 and ASTD. The availability of such system should assist various applications and research that rely on sentiment analysis as a tool.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the {Fourth} {Arabic} {Natural} {Language} {Processing} {Workshop}},
	publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
	author = {Abu Farha, Ibrahim and Magdy, Walid},
	year = {2019},
	pages = {192--198},
	file = {Abu Farha and Magdy - 2019 - Mazajak An Online Arabic Sentiment Analyser.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/2TRP28NB/Abu Farha and Magdy - 2019 - Mazajak An Online Arabic Sentiment Analyser.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{serra_measuring_2012,
	title = {Measuring the {Evolution} of {Contemporary} {Western} {Popular} {Music}},
	volume = {2},
	issn = {2045-2322},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/srep00521},
	doi = {10.1038/srep00521},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Scientific Reports},
	author = {Serrà, Joan and Corral, Álvaro and Boguñá, Marián and Haro, Martín and Arcos, Josep Ll.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {521},
	file = {Serrà et al. - 2012 - Measuring the Evolution of Contemporary Western Po.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CP8KTGGG/Serrà et al. - 2012 - Measuring the Evolution of Contemporary Western Po.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{michel_quantitative_2011-1,
	title = {Quantitative {Analysis} of {Culture} {Using} {Millions} of {Digitized} {Books}},
	volume = {331},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1199644},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1199644},
	language = {en},
	number = {6014},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Michel, J.-B. and Shen, Y. K. and Aiden, A. P. and Veres, A. and Gray, M. K. and {The Google Books Team} and Pickett, J. P. and Hoiberg, D. and Clancy, D. and Norvig, P. and Orwant, J. and Pinker, S. and Nowak, M. A. and Aiden, E. L.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {176--182},
	file = {Michel et al. - 2011 - Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/LSNBEZAR/Michel et al. - 2011 - Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{salama_morphological_2018,
	title = {Morphological {Word} {Embedding} for {Arabic}},
	volume = {142},
	issn = {18770509},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877050918321653},
	doi = {10.1016/j.procs.2018.10.463},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Procedia Computer Science},
	author = {Salama, Rana Aref and Youssef, Abdou and Fahmy, Aly},
	year = {2018},
	pages = {83--93},
	file = {Salama et al. - 2018 - Morphological Word Embedding for Arabic.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/WDD6YLI9/Salama et al. - 2018 - Morphological Word Embedding for Arabic.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{king_how_2017-2,
	title = {How the news media activate public expression and influence national agendas},
	volume = {358},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aao1100},
	doi = {10.1126/science.aao1100},
	abstract = {We demonstrate that exposure to the news media causes Americans to take public stands on specific issues, join national policy conversations, and express themselves publicly—all key components of democratic politics—more often than they would otherwise. After recruiting 48 mostly small media outlets, we chose groups of these outlets to write and publish articles on subjects we approved, on dates we randomly assigned. We estimated the causal effect on proximal measures, such as website pageviews and Twitter discussion of the articles’ specific subjects, and distal ones, such as national Twitter conversation in broad policy areas. Our intervention increased discussion in each broad policy area by {\textasciitilde}62.7\% (relative to a day’s volume), accounting for 13,166 additional posts over the treatment week, with similar effects across population subgroups.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6364},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {King, Gary and Schneer, Benjamin and White, Ariel},
	month = nov,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {776--780},
	file = {King et al. - 2017 - How the news media activate public expression and .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/B5WQ3IG7/King et al. - 2017 - How the news media activate public expression and .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{martins_rise_2020-1,
	title = {The rise of prosociality in fiction preceded democratic revolutions in {Early} {Modern} {Europe}},
	volume = {117},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.2009571117},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.2009571117},
	abstract = {The English and French Revolutions represent a turning point in history, marking the beginning of the modern rise of democracy. Recent advances in cultural evolution have put forward the idea that the early modern revolutions may be the product of a long-term psychological shift, from hierarchical and dominance-based interactions to democratic and trust-based relationships. In this study, we tested this hypothesis by analyzing theater plays during the early modern period in England and France. We found an increase in cooperation-related words over time relative to dominance-related words in both countries. Furthermore, we found that the accelerated rise of cooperation-related words preceded both the English Civil War (1642) and the French Revolution (1789). Finally, we found that rising per capita gross domestic product (GDPpc) generally led to an increase in cooperation-related words. These results highlight the likely role of long-term psychological and economic changes in explaining the rise of early modern democracies.},
	language = {en},
	number = {46},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Martins, Mauricio de Jesus Dias and Baumard, Nicolas},
	month = nov,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {28684--28691},
	file = {Martins and Baumard - 2020 - The rise of prosociality in fiction preceded democ.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5CDSQAU6/Martins and Baumard - 2020 - The rise of prosociality in fiction preceded democ.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{gentzkow_measuring_2019,
	title = {Measuring {Group} {Differences} in {High}‐{Dimensional} {Choices}: {Method} and {Application} to {Congressional} {Speech}},
	volume = {87},
	issn = {0012-9682},
	shorttitle = {Measuring {Group} {Differences} in {High}‐{Dimensional} {Choices}},
	url = {https://www.econometricsociety.org/doi/10.3982/ECTA16566},
	doi = {10.3982/ECTA16566},
	abstract = {We study the problem of measuring group differences in choices when the dimensionality of the choice set is large. We show that standard approaches suffer from a severe finite-sample bias, and we propose an estimator that applies recent advances in machine learning to address this bias. We apply this method to measure trends in the partisanship of congressional speech from 1873 to 2016, defining partisanship to be the ease with which an observer could infer a congressperson’s party from a single utterance. Our estimates imply that partisanship is far greater in recent years than in the past, and that it increased sharply in the early 1990s after remaining low and relatively constant over the preceding century.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Econometrica},
	author = {Gentzkow, Matthew and Shapiro, Jesse M. and Taddy, Matt},
	year = {2019},
	pages = {1307--1340},
	file = {Gentzkow et al. - 2019 - Measuring Group Differences in High‐Dimensional Ch.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/G5ZIGV3Y/Gentzkow et al. - 2019 - Measuring Group Differences in High‐Dimensional Ch.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{alwan_political_2021,
	title = {Political {Arabic} {Articles} {Orientation} {Using} {Rough} {Set} {Theory} {With} {Sentiment} {Lexicon}},
	volume = {9},
	issn = {2169-3536},
	url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9336585/},
	doi = {10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3054919},
	abstract = {Sentiment analysis is an emerging research field that can be integrated with other domains, including data mining, natural language processing and machine learning. In political articles, it is difficult to understand and summarise the state or overall views due to the diversity and size of social media information. A number of studies were conducted in the area of sentiment analysis, especially using English texts, while Arabic language received less attention in the literature. In this study, we propose a detection model for political orientation articles in the Arabic language. We introduce the key assumptions of the model, present and discuss the obtained results, and highlight the issues that still need to be explored to further our understanding of subjective sentences. The main purpose of applying this new approach based on Rough Set (RS) theory is to increase the accuracy of the models in recognizing the orientation of the articles. We present extensive simulation results, which demonstrate the superiority of the proposed model over other algorithms. It is shown that the performance of the proposed approach significantly improves by adding discriminating features. To summarize, the proposed approach demonstrates an accuracy of 85.483\%, when evaluating the orientation of political Arabic datasets, compared to 72.58\% and 64.516\% for the Support Vector Machines and Naïve Bayes methods, respectively.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {IEEE Access},
	author = {Alwan, Jwan K. and Hussain, Abir Jaafar and Abd, Dhafar Hamed and Sadiq, Ahmed Tariq and Khalaf, Mohamed and Liatsis, Panos},
	year = {2021},
	pages = {24475--24484},
	file = {Alwan et al. - 2021 - Political Arabic Articles Orientation Using Rough .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/INJW6A3Z/Alwan et al. - 2021 - Political Arabic Articles Orientation Using Rough .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{twenge_increases_2012,
	title = {Increases in {Individualistic} {Words} and {Phrases} in {American} {Books}, 1960–2008},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {1932-6203},
	url = {https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0040181},
	doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0040181},
	abstract = {Cultural products such as song lyrics, television shows, and books reveal cultural differences, including cultural change over time. Two studies examine changes in the use of individualistic words (Study 1) and phrases (Study 2) in the Google Books Ngram corpus of millions of books in American English. Current samples from the general population generated and rated lists of individualistic words and phrases (e.g., ‘‘unique,’’ ‘‘personalize,’’ ‘‘self,’’ ‘‘all about me,’’ ‘‘I am special,’’ ‘‘I’m the best’’). Individualistic words and phrases increased in use between 1960 and 2008, even when controlling for changes in communal words and phrases. Language in American books has become increasingly focused on the self and uniqueness in the decades since 1960.},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {PLoS ONE},
	author = {Twenge, Jean M. and Campbell, W. Keith and Gentile, Brittany},
	editor = {Bentley, R. Alexander},
	month = jul,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {e40181},
	file = {Twenge et al. - 2012 - Increases in Individualistic Words and Phrases in .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/YX8KEPWZ/Twenge et al. - 2012 - Increases in Individualistic Words and Phrases in .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{michel_quantitative_2011-2,
	title = {Quantitative {Analysis} of {Culture} {Using} {Millions} of {Digitized} {Books}},
	volume = {331},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1199644},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1199644},
	language = {en},
	number = {6014},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Michel, J.-B. and Shen, Y. K. and Aiden, A. P. and Veres, A. and Gray, M. K. and {The Google Books Team} and Pickett, J. P. and Hoiberg, D. and Clancy, D. and Norvig, P. and Orwant, J. and Pinker, S. and Nowak, M. A. and Aiden, E. L.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {176--182},
	file = {Michel et al. - 2011 - Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/9BX5ZNNK/Michel et al. - 2011 - Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{king_reverse-engineering_2014,
	title = {Reverse-engineering censorship in {China}: {Randomized} experimentation and participant observation},
	volume = {345},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	shorttitle = {Reverse-engineering censorship in {China}},
	url = {https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1251722},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1251722},
	language = {en},
	number = {6199},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {King, G. and Pan, J. and Roberts, M. E.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {1251722--1251722},
	file = {King et al. - 2014 - Reverse-engineering censorship in China Randomize.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/BH2X3IJY/King et al. - 2014 - Reverse-engineering censorship in China Randomize.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{caliskan_semantics_2017,
	title = {Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases},
	volume = {356},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aal4230},
	doi = {10.1126/science.aal4230},
	language = {en},
	number = {6334},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Caliskan, Aylin and Bryson, Joanna J. and Narayanan, Arvind},
	month = apr,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {183--186},
	file = {Caliskan et al. - 2017 - Semantics derived automatically from language corp.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/A69RX9RE/Caliskan et al. - 2017 - Semantics derived automatically from language corp.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{giulianelli_analysing_2020-1,
	title = {Analysing {Lexical} {Semantic} {Change} with {Contextualised} {Word} {Representations}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2004.14118},
	doi = {10.18653/v1/2020.acl-main.365},
	abstract = {This paper presents the first unsupervised approach to lexical semantic change that makes use of contextualised word representations. We propose a novel method that exploits the BERT neural language model to obtain representations of word usages, clusters these representations into usage types, and measures change along time with three proposed metrics. We create a new evaluation dataset and show that the model representations and the detected semantic shifts are positively correlated with human judgements. Our extensive qualitative analysis demonstrates that our method captures a variety of synchronic and diachronic linguistic phenomena. We expect our work to inspire further research in this direction.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics},
	author = {Giulianelli, Mario and Del Tredici, Marco and Fernández, Raquel},
	year = {2020},
	note = {arXiv: 2004.14118},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Computers and Society},
	pages = {3960--3973},
	file = {Giulianelli et al. - 2020 - Analysing Lexical Semantic Change with Contextuali.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/W48AD5P7/Giulianelli et al. - 2020 - Analysing Lexical Semantic Change with Contextuali.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{jones_stereotypical_2020-1,
	title = {Stereotypical {Gender} {Associations} in {Language} {Have} {Decreased} {Over} {Time}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {23306696},
	url = {https://www.sociologicalscience.com/articles-v7-1-1/},
	doi = {10.15195/v7.a1},
	abstract = {Using a corpus of millions of digitized books, we document the presence and trajectory over time of stereotypical gender associations in the written English language from 1800 to 2000. We employ the novel methodology of word embeddings to quantify male gender bias: the tendency to associate a domain with the male gender. We measure male gender bias in four stereotypically gendered domains: career, family, science, and arts. We found that stereotypical gender associations in language have decreased over time but still remain, with career and science terms demonstrating positive male gender bias and family and arts terms demonstrating negative male gender bias. We also seek evidence of changing associations corresponding to the second shift and find partial support. Traditional gender ideology is latent within the text of published English-language books, yet the magnitude of traditionally gendered associations appears to be decreasing over time.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Sociological Science},
	author = {Jones, Jason and Amin, Mohammad and Kim, Jessica and Skiena, Steven},
	year = {2020},
	pages = {1--35},
	file = {Jones et al. - 2020 - Stereotypical Gender Associations in Language Have.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5949DC6U/Jones et al. - 2020 - Stereotypical Gender Associations in Language Have.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{stoltz_concept_2019-2,
	title = {Concept {Mover}’s {Distance}: measuring concept engagement via word embeddings in texts},
	volume = {2},
	issn = {2432-2717, 2432-2725},
	shorttitle = {Concept {Mover}’s {Distance}},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42001-019-00048-6},
	doi = {10.1007/s42001-019-00048-6},
	abstract = {We propose a method for measuring a text’s engagement with a focal concept using distributional representations of the meaning of words. More specifically, this measure relies on word mover’s distance, which uses word embeddings to determine similarities between two documents. In our approach, which we call Concept Mover’s Distance, a document is measured by the minimum distance the words in the document need to travel to arrive at the position of a “pseudo document” consisting of only words denoting a focal concept. This approach captures the prototypical structure of concepts, is fairly robust to pruning sparse terms as well as variation in text lengths within a corpus, and with pre-trained embeddings, can be used even when terms denoting concepts are absent from corpora and can be applied to bag-of-words datasets. We close by outlining some limitations of the proposed method as well as opportunities for future research.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Computational Social Science},
	author = {Stoltz, Dustin S. and Taylor, Marshall A.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {293--313},
	file = {Stoltz and Taylor - 2019 - Concept Mover’s Distance measuring concept engage.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/NXTVKDQ5/Stoltz and Taylor - 2019 - Concept Mover’s Distance measuring concept engage.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{greenfield_changing_2013,
	title = {The {Changing} {Psychology} of {Culture} {From} 1800 {Through} 2000},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {0956-7976, 1467-9280},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956797613479387},
	doi = {10.1177/0956797613479387},
	abstract = {The Google Books Ngram Viewer allows researchers to quantify culture across centuries by searching millions of books. This tool was used to test theory-based predictions about implications of an urbanizing population for the psychology of culture. Adaptation to rural environments prioritizes social obligation and duty, giving to other people, social belonging, religion in everyday life, authority relations, and physical activity. Adaptation to urban environments requires more individualistic and materialistic values; such adaptation prioritizes choice, personal possessions, and child-centered socialization in order to foster the development of psychological mindedness and the unique self. The Google Ngram Viewer generated relative frequencies of words indexing these values from the years 1800 to 2000 in American English books. As urban populations increased and rural populations declined, word frequencies moved in the predicted directions. Books published in the United Kingdom replicated this pattern. The analysis established long-term relationships between ecological change and cultural change, as predicted by the theory of social change and human development (Greenfield, 2009).},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Psychological Science},
	author = {Greenfield, Patricia M.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {1722--1731},
	file = {Greenfield - 2013 - The Changing Psychology of Culture From 1800 Throu.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/DZ2CQAGJ/Greenfield - 2013 - The Changing Psychology of Culture From 1800 Throu.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rozado_using_2021-1,
	title = {Using word embeddings to probe sentiment associations of politically loaded terms in news and opinion articles from news media outlets},
	issn = {2432-2717, 2432-2725},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42001-021-00130-y},
	doi = {10.1007/s42001-021-00130-y},
	abstract = {This work describes an analysis of political associations in 27 million diachronic (1975–2019) news and opinion articles from 47 news media outlets popular in the United States. We use embedding models trained on individual outlets content to quantify outlet-specific latent associations between positive/negative sentiment words and terms loaded with political connotations such as those describing political orientation, party affiliation, names of influential politicians, and ideologically aligned public figures. We observe that both left- and right-leaning news media tend to associate positive sentiment words with terms used to refer to members of their own political in-group and negative sentiment words with terms used to denote members of their ideological outgroup. Outlets rated as centrist by humans display political associations that are often milder but similar in orientation to those of leftleaning news organizations. A weighted average of political associations by outlets’ readership volume hints that political associations embedded in left of center news outlets might have larger societal reach. A chronological analysis of political associations through time suggests that political sentiment polarization is increasing in both left- and right-leaning news media contents. Our approach for measuring sentiment associations of words denoting political orientation in outlet-specific embedding models correlates substantially with external human ratings of outlet ideological bias (r {\textgreater} 0.7). Yet, specific sentiment associations are sometimes multifaceted and challenging to interpret. Overall, our work signals the potential of machine learning models derived from news media language usage to quantify the ideological bias embedded in news outlet content.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-24},
	journal = {Journal of Computational Social Science},
	author = {Rozado, David and al-Gharbi, Musa},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	file = {Rozado and al-Gharbi - 2021 - Using word embeddings to probe sentiment associati.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/69FBAVD5/Rozado and al-Gharbi - 2021 - Using word embeddings to probe sentiment associati.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{groseclose_measure_2005,
	title = {A {Measure} of {Media} {Bias}},
	volume = {120},
	issn = {0033-5533, 1531-4650},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-lookup/doi/10.1162/003355305775097542},
	doi = {10.1162/003355305775097542},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {The Quarterly Journal of Economics},
	author = {Groseclose, T. and Milyo, J.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1191--1237},
	file = {Groseclose and Milyo - 2005 - A Measure of Media Bias.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/GDNLIGCP/Groseclose and Milyo - 2005 - A Measure of Media Bias.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{baum_filtering_nodate,
	title = {Filtering revolution},
	abstract = {Reporting bias – the media’s tendency to systematically underreport or overreport certain types of events – is a persistent problem for participants and observers of armed conflict. We argue that the nature of reporting bias depends on how news organizations navigate the political context in which they are based. Where government pressure on the media is limited – in democratic regimes – the scope of reporting should reflect conventional media preferences toward novel, large-scale, dramatic developments that challenge the conventional wisdom and highlight the unsustainability of the status quo. Where political constraints on reporting are more onerous – in non-democratic regimes – the more conservative preferences of the state will drive the scope of coverage, emphasizing the legitimacy and inevitability of the prevailing order. We test these propositions using new data on protest and political violence during the 2011 Libyan uprising and daily newspaper coverage of the Arab Spring from 113 countries. We uncover evidence of a status-quo media bias in non-democratic states, and a revisionist bias in democratic states. Media coverage in non-democracies underreported protests and nonviolent collective action by regime opponents, largely ignored government atrocities, and overreported those caused by rebels. We find the opposite patterns in democratic states.},
	language = {en},
	journal = {journal of PEACE RESEARCH},
	author = {Baum, Matthew A and Zhukov, Yuri M},
	pages = {17},
	file = {Baum and Zhukov - Filtering revolution.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/UBGTMD6J/Baum and Zhukov - Filtering revolution.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{tella_government_2011,
	title = {Government {Advertising} and {Media} {Coverage} of {Corruption} {Scandals}},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {1945-7782, 1945-7790},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/app.3.4.119},
	doi = {10.1257/app.3.4.119},
	abstract = {We construct measures of the extent to which the four main newspapers in Argentina report government corruption on their front page during the period 1998–2007 and correlate them with government advertising. The correlation is negative. The size is considerable—a one standard deviation increase in monthly government advertising is associated with a reduction in the coverage of the government's corruption scandals of 0.23 of a front page per month, or 18 percent of a standard deviation in coverage. The results are robust to the inclusion of newspaper, month, newspaper × president and individual-corruption scandal fixed effects, as well as newspaper × president specific time trends. (JEL D72, K42, L82, M37, O17)},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {American Economic Journal: Applied Economics},
	author = {Tella, Rafael Di and Franceschelli, Ignacio},
	month = oct,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {119--151},
	file = {Tella and Franceschelli - 2011 - Government Advertising and Media Coverage of Corru.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZUAXM6GK/Tella and Franceschelli - 2011 - Government Advertising and Media Coverage of Corru.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{guriev_informational_2019,
	title = {Informational {Autocrats}},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {0895-3309},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/jep.33.4.100},
	doi = {10.1257/jep.33.4.100},
	abstract = {In recent decades, dictatorships based on mass repression have largely given way to a new model based on the manipulation of information. Instead of terrorizing citizens into submission, “informational autocrats” artificially boost their popularity by convincing the public they are competent. To do so, they use propaganda and silence informed members of the elite by co-optation or censorship. Using several sources, including a newly created dataset on authoritarian control techniques, we document a range of trends in recent autocracies consistent with this new model: a decline in violence, efforts to conceal state repression, rejection of official ideologies, imitation of democracy, a perceptions gap between the masses and the elite, and the adoption by leaders of a rhetoric of performance rather than one aimed at inspiring fear.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {Journal of Economic Perspectives},
	author = {Guriev, Sergei and Treisman, Daniel},
	month = nov,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {100--127},
	file = {Guriev and Treisman - 2019 - Informational Autocrats.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/S9C3JAFC/Guriev and Treisman - 2019 - Informational Autocrats.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{qin_media_2018,
	title = {Media {Bias} in {China}},
	volume = {108},
	issn = {0002-8282},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/aer.20170947},
	doi = {10.1257/aer.20170947},
	abstract = {This paper examines whether and how market competition affected the political bias of government-owned newspapers in China from 1981 to 2011. We measure media bias based on coverage of government mouthpiece content ( propaganda) relative to commercial content. We first find that a reform that forced newspaper exits (reduced competition) affected media bias by increasing product specialization, with some papers focusing on propaganda and others on commercial content. Second, lower-level governments produce less-biased content and launch commercial newspapers earlier, eroding higher-level governments’ political goals. Third, bottom-up competition intensifies the politico-economic trade-off, leading to product proliferation and less audience exposure to propaganda. (JEL D72, L31, L82, O14, O17, P26, P31)},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {American Economic Review},
	author = {Qin, Bei and Strömberg, David and Wu, Yanhui},
	month = sep,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {2442--2476},
	file = {Qin et al. - 2018 - Media Bias in China.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AAL4ZFP3/Qin et al. - 2018 - Media Bias in China.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{conroy-krutz_moderation_2015,
	title = {Moderation from {Bias}: {A} {Field} {Experiment} on {Partisan} {Media} in a {New} {Democracy}},
	volume = {77},
	issn = {0022-3816, 1468-2508},
	shorttitle = {Moderation from {Bias}},
	url = {https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/680187},
	doi = {10.1086/680187},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {The Journal of Politics},
	author = {Conroy-Krutz, Jeffrey and Moehler, Devra C.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {575--587},
	file = {Conroy-Krutz and Moehler - 2015 - Moderation from Bias A Field Experiment on Partis.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/H3VJVPBE/Conroy-Krutz and Moehler - 2015 - Moderation from Bias A Field Experiment on Partis.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{adena_radio_2015,
	title = {Radio and the {Rise} of {The} {Nazis} in {Prewar} {Germany}*},
	volume = {130},
	issn = {0033-5533, 1531-4650},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/130/4/1885/1916582},
	doi = {10.1093/qje/qjv030},
	abstract = {Abstract
            How do the media affect public support for democratic institutions in a fragile democracy? What role do they play in a dictatorial regime? We study these questions in the context of Germany of the 1920s and 1930s. During the democratic period, when the Weimar government introduced progovernment political news, the growth of Nazi popularity slowed down in areas with access to radio. This effect was reversed during the campaign for the last competitive election as a result of the pro-Nazi radio broadcast following Hitler’s appointment as chancellor. During the consolidation of dictatorship, radio propaganda helped the Nazis enroll new party members. After the Nazis established their rule, radio propaganda incited anti-Semitic acts and denunciations of Jews to authorities by ordinary citizens. The effect of anti-Semitic propaganda varied depending on the listeners’ predispositions toward the message. Nazi radio was most effective in places where anti-Semitism was historically high and had a negative effect in places with historically low anti-Semitism.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {The Quarterly Journal of Economics},
	author = {Adena, Maja and Enikolopov, Ruben and Petrova, Maria and Santarosa, Veronica and Zhuravskaya, Ekaterina},
	month = nov,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {1885--1939},
	file = {Adena et al. - 2015 - Radio and the Rise of The Nazis in Prewar Germany.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/XXTT6JZT/Adena et al. - 2015 - Radio and the Rise of The Nazis in Prewar Germany.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lawson_television_2005,
	title = {Television {News}, {Mexico}'s 2000 {Elections} and {Media} {Effects} in {Emerging} {Democracies}},
	volume = {35},
	issn = {0007-1234, 1469-2112},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007123405000013/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0007123405000013},
	abstract = {On the basis of an analysis of a four-wave panel survey, we argue that exposure to television news had significant, substantial effects on both attitudes and vote choices in Mexico's watershed presidential election of 2000. These findings support the contention, implicit in some research on political communication, that the magnitude of media effects varies with certain features of the political context. In particular, television influence in electoral campaigns may be substantially larger in emerging democratic systems.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {British Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Lawson, Chappell and McCANN, James A.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1--30},
	file = {Lawson and McCANN - 2005 - Television News, Mexico's 2000 Elections and Media.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/NF98P2FX/Lawson and McCANN - 2005 - Television News, Mexico's 2000 Elections and Media.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{walker_breaking_2014,
	title = {Breaking the {News}: {The} {Role} of {State}-{Run} {Media}},
	volume = {25},
	issn = {1086-3214},
	shorttitle = {Breaking the {News}},
	url = {http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal_of_democracy/v025/25.1.walker.html},
	doi = {10.1353/jod.2014.0015},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {Journal of Democracy},
	author = {Walker, Christopher and Orttung, Robert W.},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {71--85},
	file = {Walker and Orttung - 2014 - Breaking the News The Role of State-Run Media.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/HPVXADKP/Walker and Orttung - 2014 - Breaking the News The Role of State-Run Media.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rashed_embeddings-based_nodate,
	title = {Embeddings-{Based} {Clustering} for {Target} {Specific} {Stances}: {The} {Case} of a {Polarized} {Turkey}},
	abstract = {On June 24, 2018, Turkey conducted a highly consequential election in which the Turkish people elected their president and parliament in the first election under a new presidential system. During the election period, the Turkish people extensively shared their political opinions on Twitter. One aspect of polarization among the electorate was support for or opposition to the reelection of Recep Tayyip Erdog˘an. In this paper, we present an unsupervised method for target-specific stance detection in a polarized setting, specifically Turkish politics, achieving 90\% precision in identifying user stances, while maintaining more than 80\% recall. The method involves representing users in an embedding space using Google’s Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) based multilingual universal sentence encoder. The representations are then projected onto a lower dimensional space in a manner that reflects similarities and are consequently clustered. We show the effectiveness of our method in properly clustering users of divergent groups across multiple targets that include political figures, different groups, and parties. We perform our analysis on a large dataset of 108M Turkish election-related tweets along with the timeline tweets of 168k Turkish users, who authored 213M tweets. Given the resultant user stances, we are able to observe correlations between topics and compute topic polarization.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Rashed, Ammar and Kutlu, Mucahid and Darwish, Kareem and Elsayed, Tamer and Bayrak, Cansın},
	pages = {12},
	file = {Rashed et al. - Embeddings-Based Clustering for Target Specific St.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/DEEYBN27/Rashed et al. - Embeddings-Based Clustering for Target Specific St.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kucuk_stance_2020,
	title = {Stance {Detection}: {A} {Survey}},
	volume = {53},
	issn = {0360-0300, 1557-7341},
	shorttitle = {Stance {Detection}},
	url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3369026},
	doi = {10.1145/3369026},
	abstract = {Automatic elicitation of semantic information from natural language texts is an important research problem with many practical application areas. Especially after the recent proliferation of online content through channels such as social media sites, news portals, and forums; solutions to problems such as sentiment analysis, sarcasm/controversy/veracity/rumour/fake news detection, and argument mining gained increasing impact and significance, revealed with large volumes of related scientific publications. In this article, we tackle an important problem from the same family and present a survey of
              stance detection
              in social media posts and (online) regular texts. Although stance detection is defined in different ways in different application settings, the most common definition is “automatic classification of the stance of the producer of a piece of text, towards a target, into one of these three classes: \{\vphantom{\}}
              Favor
              ,
              Against
              ,
              Neither
              \vphantom{\{}\}.” Our survey includes definitions of related problems and concepts, classifications of the proposed approaches so far, descriptions of the relevant datasets and tools, and related outstanding issues. Stance detection is a recent natural language processing topic with diverse application areas, and our survey article on this newly emerging topic will act as a significant resource for interested researchers and practitioners.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {ACM Computing Surveys},
	author = {Küçük, Dilek and Can, Fazli},
	month = may,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {1--37},
	file = {Küçük and Can - 2020 - Stance Detection A Survey.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/9RHMSUZG/Küçük and Can - 2020 - Stance Detection A Survey.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{alhindi_arastance_2021,
	title = {{AraStance}: {A} {Multi}-{Country} and {Multi}-{Domain} {Dataset} of {Arabic} {Stance} {Detection} for {Fact} {Checking}},
	shorttitle = {{AraStance}},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2104.13559},
	abstract = {With the continuing spread of misinformation and disinformation online, it is of increasing importance to develop combating mechanisms at scale in the form of automated systems that support multiple languages. One task of interest is claim veracity prediction, which can be addressed using stance detection with respect to relevant documents retrieved online. To this end, we present our new Arabic Stance Detection dataset (AraStance) of 4,063 claim–article pairs from a diverse set of sources comprising three fact-checking websites and one news website. AraStance covers false and true claims from multiple domains (e.g., politics, sports, health) and several Arab countries, and it is well-balanced between related and unrelated documents with respect to the claims. We benchmark AraStance, along with two other stance detection datasets, using a number of BERT-based models. Our best model achieves an accuracy of 85\% and a macro F1 score of 78\%, which leaves room for improvement and reflects the challenging nature of AraStance and the task of stance detection in general.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {arXiv:2104.13559 [cs]},
	author = {Alhindi, Tariq and Alabdulkarim, Amal and Alshehri, Ali and Abdul-Mageed, Muhammad and Nakov, Preslav},
	month = may,
	year = {2021},
	note = {arXiv: 2104.13559},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language},
	file = {Alhindi et al. - 2021 - AraStance A Multi-Country and Multi-Domain Datase.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/6IVJUW86/Alhindi et al. - 2021 - AraStance A Multi-Country and Multi-Domain Datase.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{sobhani_detecting_2016,
	address = {Berlin, Germany},
	title = {Detecting {Stance} in {Tweets} {And} {Analyzing} its {Interaction} with {Sentiment}},
	url = {http://aclweb.org/anthology/S16-2021},
	doi = {10.18653/v1/S16-2021},
	abstract = {One may express favor (or disfavor) towards a target by using positive or negative language. Here for the first time we present a dataset of tweets annotated for whether the tweeter is in favor of or against pre-chosen targets, as well as for sentiment. These targets may or may not be referred to in the tweets, and they may or may not be the target of opinion in the tweets. We develop a simple stance detection system that outperforms all 19 teams that participated in a recent shared task competition on the same dataset (SemEval-2016 Task \#6). Additionally, access to both stance and sentiment annotations allows us to conduct several experiments to tease out their interactions. We show that while sentiment features are useful for stance classification, they alone are not sufficient. We also show the impacts of various features on detecting stance and sentiment, respectively.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the {Fifth} {Joint} {Conference} on {Lexical} and {Computational} {Semantics}},
	publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
	author = {Sobhani, Parinaz and Mohammad, Saif and Kiritchenko, Svetlana},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {159--169},
	file = {Sobhani et al. - 2016 - Detecting Stance in Tweets And Analyzing its Inter.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/LLWRCRN7/Sobhani et al. - 2016 - Detecting Stance in Tweets And Analyzing its Inter.pdf:application/pdf},
}


@article{baumard_cultural_2022,
	title = {The cultural evolution of love in literary history},
	issn = {2397-3374},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-022-01292-z},
	doi = {10.1038/s41562-022-01292-z},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2022-03-10},
	journal = {Nature Human Behaviour},
	author = {Baumard, Nicolas and Huillery, Elise and Hyafil, Alexandre and Safra, Lou},
	month = mar,
	year = {2022},
	file = {Baumard et al. - 2022 - The cultural evolution of love in literary history.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ANIHC3R2/Baumard et al. - 2022 - The cultural evolution of love in literary history.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{michalopoulos_folklore_2021,
	title = {Folklore},
	volume = {136},
	issn = {0033-5533, 1531-4650},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/136/4/1993/6124640},
	doi = {10.1093/qje/qjab003},
	abstract = {Abstract
            Folklore is the collection of traditional beliefs, customs, and stories of a community passed through the generations by word of mouth. We introduce to economics a unique catalog of oral traditions spanning approximately 1,000 societies. After validating the catalog’s content by showing that the groups’ motifs reflect known geographic and social attributes, we present two sets of applications. First, we illustrate how to fill in the gaps and expand upon a group’s ethnographic record, focusing on political complexity, high gods, and trade. Second, we discuss how machine learning and human classification methods can help shed light on cultural traits, using gender roles, attitudes toward risk, and trust as examples. Societies with tales portraying men as dominant and women as submissive tend to relegate their women to subordinate positions in their communities, both historically and today. More risk-averse and less entrepreneurial people grew up listening to stories wherein competitions and challenges are more likely to be harmful than beneficial. Communities with low tolerance toward antisocial behavior, captured by the prevalence of tricksters being punished, are more trusting and prosperous today. These patterns hold across groups, countries, and second-generation immigrants. Overall, the results highlight the significance of folklore in cultural economics, calling for additional applications.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2022-03-10},
	journal = {The Quarterly Journal of Economics},
	author = {Michalopoulos, Stelios and Xue, Melanie Meng},
	month = oct,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {1993--2046},
	file = {Michalopoulos and Xue - 2021 - Folklore.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/A6BD433H/Michalopoulos and Xue - 2021 - Folklore.pdf:application/pdf},
}


@article{budak_fair_2016,
	title = {Fair and {Balanced}? {Quantifying} {Media} {Bias} through {Crowdsourced} {Content} {Analysis}},
	volume = {80},
	issn = {0033-362X, 1537-5331},
	shorttitle = {Fair and {Balanced}?},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/poq/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/poq/nfw007},
	doi = {10.1093/poq/nfw007},
	abstract = {It is widely thought that news organizations exhibit ideological bias, but rigorously quantifying such slant has proven methodologically challenging. Through a combination of machinelearning and crowdsourcing techniques, we investigate the selection and framing of political issues in fifteen major US news outlets. Starting with 803,146 news stories published over twelve months, we first used supervised learning algorithms to identify the 14 percent of articles pertaining to political events. We then recruited 749 online human judges to classify a random subset of 10,502 of these political articles according to topic and ideological position. Our analysis yields an ideological ordering of outlets consistent with prior work. However, news outlets are considerably more similar than generally believed. Specifically, with the exception of political scandals, major news organizations present topics in a largely nonpartisan manner, casting neither Democrats nor Republicans in a particularly favorable or unfavorable light. Moreover, again with the exception of political scandals, little evidence exists of systematic differences in story selection, with all major news outlets covering a wide variety of topics with frequency largely unrelated to the outlet’s ideological position. Finally, news organizations express their ideological bias not by directly advocating for a preferred political party, but rather by disproportionately criticizing one side, a convention that further moderates overall differences.},
	language = {en},
	number = {S1},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {Public Opinion Quarterly},
	author = {Budak, Ceren and Goel, Sharad and Rao, Justin M.},
	year = {2016},
	pages = {250--271},
	file = {Budak et al. - 2016 - Fair and Balanced Quantifying Media Bias through .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/N8XCR4LH/Budak et al. - 2016 - Fair and Balanced Quantifying Media Bias through .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{darwish_improved_2017,
	address = {Sydney Australia},
	title = {Improved {Stance} {Prediction} in a {User} {Similarity} {Feature} {Space}},
	isbn = {978-1-4503-4993-2},
	url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3110025.3110112},
	doi = {10.1145/3110025.3110112},
	abstract = {Predicting the stance of social media users on a topic can be challenging, particularly for users who never express explicit stances. Earlier work has shown that using users’ historical or non-relevant tweets can be used to predict stance. We build on prior work by making use of users’ interaction elements, such as retweeted accounts and mentioned hashtags, to compute the similarities between users and to classify new users in a user similarity feature space. We show that this approach significantly improves stance prediction on two datasets that differ in terms of language, topic, and cultural background.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2017 {IEEE}/{ACM} {International} {Conference} on {Advances} in {Social} {Networks} {Analysis} and {Mining} 2017},
	publisher = {ACM},
	author = {Darwish, Kareem and Magdy, Walid and Zanouda, Tahar},
	month = jul,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {145--148},
	file = {Darwish et al. - 2017 - Improved Stance Prediction in a User Similarity Fe.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8UI3VCVE/Darwish et al. - 2017 - Improved Stance Prediction in a User Similarity Fe.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rozenas_how_2019,
	title = {How {Autocrats} {Manipulate} {Economic} {News}: {Evidence} from {Russia}’s {State}-{Controlled} {Television}},
	volume = {81},
	issn = {0022-3816, 1468-2508},
	shorttitle = {How {Autocrats} {Manipulate} {Economic} {News}},
	url = {https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/703208},
	doi = {10.1086/703208},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {The Journal of Politics},
	author = {Rozenas, Arturas and Stukal, Denis},
	month = jul,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {982--996},
	file = {Rozenas and Stukal - 2019 - How Autocrats Manipulate Economic News Evidence f.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/BQ7KPK7R/Rozenas and Stukal - 2019 - How Autocrats Manipulate Economic News Evidence f.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{peisakhin_electoral_2018,
	title = {Electoral {Effects} of {Biased} {Media}: {Russian} {Television} in {Ukraine}: {ELECTORAL} {EFFECTS} {OF} {BIASED} {MEDIA}},
	volume = {62},
	issn = {00925853},
	shorttitle = {Electoral {Effects} of {Biased} {Media}},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajps.12355},
	doi = {10.1111/ajps.12355},
	abstract = {We use plausibly exogenous variation in the availability of the Russian analog television signal in Ukraine to study how a media source with a conspicuous political agenda impacts political behavior and attitudes. Using highly disaggregated election data and an original survey, we estimate that Russian television substantially increased average electoral support for parties and candidates with a “pro-Russian” agenda in the 2014 presidential and parliamentary elections. Evidence suggests that this effect is attributable to persuasion rather than differential mobilization. The effectiveness of biased media varied in a politically consequential way: Its impact was largest on voters with strong pro-Russian priors but was less effective, and to some degree even counter-effective, in persuading those with strong pro-Western priors. Our finding suggests that exposing an already polarized society to a biased media source can result in even deeper polarization.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Peisakhin, Leonid and Rozenas, Arturas},
	month = jul,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {535--550},
	file = {Peisakhin and Rozenas - 2018 - Electoral Effects of Biased Media Russian Televis.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/VAQRJRRI/Peisakhin and Rozenas - 2018 - Electoral Effects of Biased Media Russian Televis.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{enikolopov_media_2011,
	title = {Media and {Political} {Persuasion}: {Evidence} from {Russia}},
	volume = {101},
	issn = {0002-8282},
	shorttitle = {Media and {Political} {Persuasion}},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/aer.101.7.3253},
	doi = {10.1257/aer.101.7.3253},
	abstract = {This paper compares electoral outcomes of 1999 parliamentary elections in Russia among geographical areas with differential access to the only national TV channel independent from the government. It was available to three-quarters of Russia's population and its signal availability was idiosyncratic, conditional on observables. Independent TV decreased aggregate vote for the government party by 8.9 percentage points, increased the combined vote for major opposition parties by 6.3 percentage points, and decreased turnout by 3.8 percentage points. The probability of voting for opposition parties increased for individuals who watched independent TV even controlling for voting intentions measured one month before elections. (JEL D72, L82, P26)},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2021-08-27},
	journal = {American Economic Review},
	author = {Enikolopov, Ruben and Petrova, Maria and Zhuravskaya, Ekaterina},
	month = dec,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {3253--3285},
	file = {Enikolopov et al. - 2011 - Media and Political Persuasion Evidence from Russ.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/RI9R6B6N/Enikolopov et al. - 2011 - Media and Political Persuasion Evidence from Russ.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lynch_after_2015,
	title = {After the {Arab} {Spring}: {How} the {Media} {Trashed} the {Transitions}},
	volume = {26},
	number = {4},
	journal = {Journal of Democracy},
	author = {Lynch, Marc},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {90--99},
}

@article{rodriguez_embedding_2021,
	title = {Embedding {Regression}: {Models} for {Context}-{Specific} {Description} and {Inference} in {Political} {Science}},
	journal = {Working paper},
	author = {Rodriguez, Pedro L and Spirling, Arthur and Stewart, Brandon M},
	year = {2021},
}

@incollection{gritsenko_studying_2021,
	address = {Cham},
	title = {Studying {Ideational} {Change} in {Russian} {Politics} with {Topic} {Models} and {Word} {Embeddings}},
	isbn = {978-3-030-42854-9 978-3-030-42855-6},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-42855-6_25},
	abstract = {Abstract
            This chapter applies computational methods of textual analysis to a large corpus of media texts to study ideational change. The empirical focus of the chapter is on the ideas of the political role of innovation, technology, and economic development that were introduced into Russian politics during Medvedev’s presidency. The chapter uses topic modeling, shows the limitations of the method, and provides a more nuanced analysis with the help of word embeddings. The latter method is used to analyze semantic change and to capture complex semantic relationships between the studied concepts.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	booktitle = {The {Palgrave} {Handbook} of {Digital} {Russia} {Studies}},
	publisher = {Springer International Publishing},
	author = {Indukaev, Andrey},
	editor = {Gritsenko, Daria and Wijermars, Mariëlle and Kopotev, Mikhail},
	year = {2021},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-030-42855-6_25},
	pages = {443--464},
	file = {Indukaev - 2021 - Studying Ideational Change in Russian Politics wit.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/G9LG85CE/Indukaev - 2021 - Studying Ideational Change in Russian Politics wit.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{gordon_studying_2020,
	address = {Taipei Taiwan},
	title = {Studying {Political} {Bias} via {Word} {Embeddings}},
	isbn = {978-1-4503-7024-0},
	url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3366424.3383560},
	doi = {10.1145/3366424.3383560},
	abstract = {Machine Learning systems learn bias in addition to other patterns from input data on which they are trained. Bolukbasi et al. pioneered a method for quantifying gender bias learned from a corpus of text. Specifically, they compute a gender subspace into which words, represented as word vectors, can be placed and compared with one another. In this paper, we apply a similar methodology to a different type of bias, political bias. Unlike with gender bias, it is not obvious how to choose a set of definitional word pairs to compute a political bias subspace. We propose a methodology for doing so that could be used for modeling other types of bias as well. We collect and examine a 26 GB corpus of tweets from Republican and Democratic politicians in the United States (presidential candidates and members of Congress). With our definition of a political bias subspace, we observe several interesting and intuitive trends including that tweets from presidential candidates, both Republican and Democratic, show more political bias than tweets from other politicians of the same party. This work models political bias as a binary choice along one axis, as Bolukbasi et al. did for gender. However, most kinds of bias - political, racial and even gender bias itself - are much more complicated than two binary extremes along one axis. In this paper, we also discuss what might be required to model bias along multiple axes (e.g. liberal/conservative and authoritarian/libertarian for political bias) or as a range of points along a single axis (e.g. a gender spectrum).},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	booktitle = {Companion {Proceedings} of the {Web} {Conference} 2020},
	publisher = {ACM},
	author = {Gordon, Joshua and Babaeianjelodar, Marzieh and Matthews, Jeanna},
	month = apr,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {760--764},
	file = {Gordon et al. - 2020 - Studying Political Bias via Word Embeddings.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/9TR9CS79/Gordon et al. - 2020 - Studying Political Bias via Word Embeddings.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hu_refocusing_2020,
	title = {Refocusing democracy: the {Chinese} government’s framing strategy in political language},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {1351-0347, 1743-890X},
	shorttitle = {Refocusing democracy},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13510347.2019.1690461},
	doi = {10.1080/13510347.2019.1690461},
	abstract = {Authoritarian governments talk about democracy frequently. Why do they do so? What does the term democracy mean in an authoritarian political language? This research uses a computer-assisted text analytical approach illustrating how an authoritarian government strategically manipulates the discourse about democracy to benefit itself. By analysing over a million political articles published in People’s Daily over five decades, the study shows a refocusing framing strategy, in which the Chinese government defines democracy not with regime justification but with national policy priorities while denoting democracy most frequently alongside the fundamental values. With this strategy, the framed discourse appear to be consistent with the fundamental values in Western democracies but work for the preservation of the authoritarian regime.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {Democratization},
	author = {Hu, Yue},
	month = feb,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {302--320},
	file = {Hu - 2020 - Refocusing democracy the Chinese government’s fra.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/UIMX9JVJ/Hu - 2020 - Refocusing democracy the Chinese government’s fra.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{gordon_studying_2020-1,
	title = {Studying {Political} {Bias} via {Word} {Embeddings}},
	abstract = {Machine Learning systems learn bias in addition to other patterns from input data on which they are trained. Bolukbasi et al. pioneered a method for quantifying gender bias learned from a corpus of text. Specifically, they compute a gender subspace into which words, represented as word vectors, can be placed and compared with one another. In this paper, we apply a similar methodology to a different type of bias, political bias. Unlike with gender bias, it is not obvious how to choose a set of definitional word pairs to compute a political bias subspace. We propose a methodology for doing so that could be used for modeling other types of bias as well. We collect and examine a 26 GB corpus of tweets from Republican and Democratic politicians in the United States (presidential candidates and members of Congress). With our definition of a political bias subspace, we observe several interesting and intuitive trends including that tweets from presidential candidates, both Republican and Democratic, show more political bias than tweets from other politicians of the same party. This work models political bias as a binary choice along one axis, as Bolukbasi et al. did for gender. However, most kinds of bias - political, racial and even gender bias itself - are much more complicated than two binary extremes along one axis. In this paper, we also discuss what might be required to model bias along multiple axes (e.g. liberal/conservative and authoritarian/libertarian for political bias) or as a range of points along a single axis (e.g. a gender spectrum).},
	language = {en},
	author = {Gordon, Josh and Babaeianjelodar, Marzieh and Matthews, Jeanna},
	year = {2020},
	pages = {5},
	file = {Gordon et al. - 2020 - Studying Political Bias via Word Embeddings.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/VXX9EZEM/Gordon et al. - 2020 - Studying Political Bias via Word Embeddings.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{alrababah_authoritarian_2020,
	title = {Authoritarian media and diversionary threats: lessons from 30 years of {Syrian} state discourse},
	issn = {2049-8470, 2049-8489},
	shorttitle = {Authoritarian media and diversionary threats},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S204984702000028X/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/psrm.2020.28},
	abstract = {Scholars have long argued that leaders manipulate foreign policy, sometimes even initiating wars in order to enhance their domestic political position. But diversionary wars are relatively rare given the high costs of conflict. In this project, we examine data from major Syrian daily newspapers over a 30-year period (1987–2018) to explore how autocratic regimes use diversionary rhetoric. We find that before the 2011 Arab Uprisings, Syria’s state-controlled media concentrated on Israel as a security and political threat. Emphasis on Israel as a diversionary threat decreased during peace negotiations between Syria and Israel, probably in a bid to prepare the Syrian public for normalization of bilateral relations. After 2011, scrutiny of Israel—and other long-standing topics of state discourse—was displaced by discussion of foreign plots and conspiracies against the Syrian state. Our analysis illustrates how authoritarian regimes make use of diversionary strategies as well as how political shocks generate discontinuities in authoritarian rhetoric.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {Political Science Research and Methods},
	author = {Alrababa'h, Ala’ and Blaydes, Lisa},
	month = jun,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {1--16},
	file = {Alrababa'h and Blaydes - 2020 - Authoritarian media and diversionary threats less.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/PUGZ8EZH/Alrababa'h and Blaydes - 2020 - Authoritarian media and diversionary threats less.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{slapin_sound_2020,
	title = {The {Sound} of {Rebellion}: {Voting} {Dissent} and {Legislative} {Speech} in the {UK} {House} of {Commons}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0362-9805, 1939-9162},
	shorttitle = {The {Sound} of {Rebellion}},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/lsq.12251},
	doi = {10.1111/lsq.12251},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {Legislative Studies Quarterly},
	author = {Slapin, Jonathan B. and Kirkland, Justin H.},
	month = may,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {153--176},
	file = {Slapin and Kirkland - 2020 - The Sound of Rebellion Voting Dissent and Legisla.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/YAISBD9Y/Slapin and Kirkland - 2020 - The Sound of Rebellion Voting Dissent and Legisla.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{gritsenko_studying_2021-1,
	address = {Cham},
	title = {Studying {Ideational} {Change} in {Russian} {Politics} with {Topic} {Models} and {Word} {Embeddings}},
	isbn = {978-3-030-42854-9 978-3-030-42855-6},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-42855-6_25},
	abstract = {Abstract
            This chapter applies computational methods of textual analysis to a large corpus of media texts to study ideational change. The empirical focus of the chapter is on the ideas of the political role of innovation, technology, and economic development that were introduced into Russian politics during Medvedev’s presidency. The chapter uses topic modeling, shows the limitations of the method, and provides a more nuanced analysis with the help of word embeddings. The latter method is used to analyze semantic change and to capture complex semantic relationships between the studied concepts.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	booktitle = {The {Palgrave} {Handbook} of {Digital} {Russia} {Studies}},
	publisher = {Springer International Publishing},
	author = {Indukaev, Andrey},
	editor = {Gritsenko, Daria and Wijermars, Mariëlle and Kopotev, Mikhail},
	year = {2021},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-030-42855-6_25},
	pages = {443--464},
	file = {Indukaev - 2021 - Studying Ideational Change in Russian Politics wit.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/DBEDSFZB/Indukaev - 2021 - Studying Ideational Change in Russian Politics wit.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{schoonvelde_liberals_2019,
	title = {Liberals lecture, conservatives communicate: {Analyzing} complexity and ideology in 381,609 political speeches},
	volume = {14},
	issn = {1932-6203},
	shorttitle = {Liberals lecture, conservatives communicate},
	url = {https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208450},
	doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0208450},
	abstract = {There is some evidence that liberal politicians use more complex language than conservative politicians. This evidence, however, is based on a specific set of speeches of US members of Congress and UK members of Parliament. This raises the question whether the relationship between ideology and linguistic complexity is a more general phenomenon or specific to this small group of politicians. To address this question, this paper analyzes 381,609 speeches given by politicians from five parliaments, by twelve European prime ministers, as well as speeches from party congresses over time and across countries. Our results replicate and generalize earlier findings: speakers from culturally liberal parties use more complex language than speakers from culturally conservative parties. Economic leftright differences, on the other hand, are not systematically linked to linguistic complexity.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {PLOS ONE},
	author = {Schoonvelde, Martijn and Brosius, Anna and Schumacher, Gijs and Bakker, Bert N.},
	editor = {Wisneski, Daniel},
	month = feb,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {e0208450},
	file = {Schoonvelde et al. - 2019 - Liberals lecture, conservatives communicate Analy.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/WMSXBJW5/Schoonvelde et al. - 2019 - Liberals lecture, conservatives communicate Analy.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{benoit_measuring_2019,
	title = {Measuring and {Explaining} {Political} {Sophistication} through {Textual} {Complexity}},
	volume = {63},
	issn = {0092-5853, 1540-5907},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajps.12423},
	doi = {10.1111/ajps.12423},
	abstract = {Political scientists lack domain-specific measures for the purpose of measuring the sophistication of political communication. We systematically review the shortcomings of existing approaches, before developing a new and better method along with software tools to apply it. We use crowdsourcing to perform thousands of pairwise comparisons of text snippets and incorporate these results into a statistical model of sophistication. This includes previously excluded features such as parts of speech and a measure of word rarity derived from dynamic term frequencies in the Google Books data set. Our technique not only shows which features are appropriate to the political domain and how, but also provides a measure easily applied and rescaled to political texts in a way that facilitates probabilistic comparisons. We reanalyze the State of the Union corpus to demonstrate how conclusions differ when using our improved approach, including the ability to compare complexity as a function of covariates.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Benoit, Kenneth and Munger, Kevin and Spirling, Arthur},
	month = apr,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {491--508},
	file = {Benoit et al. - 2019 - Measuring and Explaining Political Sophistication .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/GMEPKSFH/Benoit et al. - 2019 - Measuring and Explaining Political Sophistication .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mcdonnell_language_2020,
	title = {The {Language} of {Right}-{Wing} {Populist} {Leaders}: {Not} {So} {Simple}},
	issn = {1537-5927, 1541-0986},
	shorttitle = {The {Language} of {Right}-{Wing} {Populist} {Leaders}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1537592720002418/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S1537592720002418},
	abstract = {Political scientists have long asserted that populists use simpler language than their mainstream rivals to appeal to ordinary people and distance themselves from elites. However, there is little comparative evidence in support of that claim. In this study, we investigate the linguistic simplicity of four right-wing populists compared to their principal opponents in the United States, France, United Kingdom, and Italy. We do so by analysing a corpus of approximately one million words from leaders’ speeches, using a series of linguistics measures for evaluating simplicity. Contrary to expectations, we find that Donald Trump was only slightly simpler than Hillary Clinton, while Nigel Farage in the UK and Marine Le Pen in France were more complex than their main rivals, and Italy’s Matteo Salvini was simpler on some measures but not others. We conclude that the simple language claim is not borne out and that other aspects of the received wisdom about populism should be re-examined.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {Perspectives on Politics},
	author = {McDonnell, Duncan and Ondelli, Stefano},
	month = aug,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {1--14},
	file = {McDonnell and Ondelli - 2020 - The Language of Right-Wing Populist Leaders Not S.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/S6UFLFXF/McDonnell and Ondelli - 2020 - The Language of Right-Wing Populist Leaders Not S.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{qin_why_2017,
	title = {Why {Does} {China} {Allow} {Freer} {Social} {Media}? {Protests} versus {Surveillance} and {Propaganda}},
	volume = {31},
	issn = {0895-3309},
	shorttitle = {Why {Does} {China} {Allow} {Freer} {Social} {Media}?},
	url = {https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/jep.31.1.117},
	doi = {10.1257/jep.31.1.117},
	abstract = {In this paper, we document basic facts regarding public debates about controversial political issues on Chinese social media. Our documentation is based on a dataset of 13.2 billion blog posts published on Sina Weibo—the most prominent Chinese microblogging platform—during the 2009–2013 period. Our primary finding is that a shockingly large number of posts on highly sensitive topics were published and circulated on social media. For instance, we find millions of posts discussing protests, and these posts are informative in predicting the occurrence of specific events. We find an even larger number of posts with explicit corruption allegations, and that these posts predict future corruption charges of specific individuals. Our findings challenge a popular view that an authoritarian regime would relentlessly censor or even ban social media. Instead, the interaction of an authoritarian government with social media seems more complex.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {Journal of Economic Perspectives},
	author = {Qin, Bei and Strömberg, David and Wu, Yanhui},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {117--140},
	file = {Qin et al. - 2017 - Why Does China Allow Freer Social Media Protests .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JTP9QKXS/Qin et al. - 2017 - Why Does China Allow Freer Social Media Protests .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kananovich_framing_2018,
	title = {Framing the {Taxation}-{Democratization} {Link}: {An} {Automated} {Content} {Analysis} of {Cross}-{National} {Newspaper} {Data}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {1940-1612, 1940-1620},
	shorttitle = {Framing the {Taxation}-{Democratization} {Link}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1940161218771893},
	doi = {10.1177/1940161218771893},
	abstract = {Taxpaying constitutes a major opportunity for citizens to relate to their governments. Although it is true that paying taxes is a responsibility, it also entitles citizens to claim control over government spending, which may facilitate a greater democratization of a country’s political regime. Consistent with this reasoning, a growing body of scholarship has documented a positive relationship between the size of tax revenues extracted by the state and the adherence of the country’s regime to democratic values. What has been left underexplored is the role in this relationship of the media, a commonly available and relied-upon source of information about taxpaying for the public. This study offers a first contribution in this direction, by exploring the relationship between the nature of the political regime and the rhetorical construction of the concept of a taxpayer in the national press. Based on an automated content analysis of articles (N=24,969) published by ninety-two newspapers and news agencies in fifty-one countries using a set of pretrained and validated machine-learning algorithms, the study demonstrates that the less democratic a state is, the more likely it is for the national press to frame a taxpayer as a subordinate in a hierarchical relationship with the state, by discussing taxpaying in tax collection, rather than public spending, terms. The study furthers a more nuanced understanding of the place of the media in the taxation-democratization link and demonstrates the applicability of the supervised machine-learning approach to classifying frames in large cross-national samples of newspaper data.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {The International Journal of Press/Politics},
	author = {Kananovich, Volha},
	month = apr,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {247--267},
	file = {Kananovich - 2018 - Framing the Taxation-Democratization Link An Auto.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/6DCSL6XW/Kananovich - 2018 - Framing the Taxation-Democratization Link An Auto.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{voltmer_hybrid_2021-1,
	title = {Hybrid {Media} and {Hybrid} {Politics}: {Contesting} {Informational} {Uncertainty} in {Lebanon} and {Tunisia}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1940-1612, 1940-1620},
	shorttitle = {Hybrid {Media} and {Hybrid} {Politics}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1940161221999266},
	doi = {10.1177/1940161221999266},
	abstract = {This paper investigates the dynamic relationship between hybrid media and hybrid politics in Lebanon and Tunisia. While previous research on the media in hybrid regimes has mainly focused on regime strategies of restricting and manipulating public debate, our analysis moves beyond repression. We argue that the ambiguities of hybrid politics, which combines democratic and authoritarian elements, not only constrain independent and critical reporting but also open up opportunities for journalistic agencies. We draw on Schedler’s concept of informational uncertainty to capture the epistemological instability of hybrid regimes and the strategies of political actors to control public knowledge. Distinguishing between three dimensions of media hybridity - economic, cultural and technological - we show how the new hybrid media environment significantly increases the volatility of hybrid politics and informational uncertainty for political actors. Our empirical analysis is based on seventy-one semistructured interviews with journalists in Lebanon and Tunisia conducted between 2016 and 2019. The material reveals a broad range of strategies used by journalists who employ the internal contradictions of hybrid politics to pursue their own agenda. The comparison between Lebanon and Tunisia also highlights contextual conditions that enable, or limit, journalistic agency, such as clientelistic dependencies, economic resources, and civil society alliances.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {The International Journal of Press/Politics},
	author = {Voltmer, Katrin and Selvik, Kjetil and Høigilt, Jacob},
	month = oct,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {842--860},
	file = {Voltmer et al. - 2021 - Hybrid Media and Hybrid Politics Contesting Infor.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5GCCG3Y8/Voltmer et al. - 2021 - Hybrid Media and Hybrid Politics Contesting Infor.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{badr_more_2021,
	title = {More or {More} of the {Same}: {Ownership} {Concentration} and {Media} {Diversity} in {Egypt}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1940-1612, 1940-1620},
	shorttitle = {More or {More} of the {Same}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/19401612211025164},
	doi = {10.1177/19401612211025164},
	abstract = {The Egyptian media has witnessed various changes in the ownership spectrum after the 2011 revolution. To explore this evolution, and through the Habermasian lens, this study examined ownership concentration in the 2019 media sphere in Egypt by mapping media outlets and their owners. It also investigated the relationship between this concentration and content diversity in a sample of print outlets in the first quarter of 2019. Three patterns of ownership concentration in the Egyptian media were identified: concentrated state ownership, concentrated private ownership, and not concentrated private ownership. Based on these findings, I argue that the media sphere in Egypt is dominated by a few gatekeepers, mostly the state, that influence content diversity and jeopardize the democratic public sphere in postrevolution Egypt.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {The International Journal of Press/Politics},
	author = {Badr, Zahraa},
	month = oct,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {774--796},
	file = {Badr - 2021 - More or More of the Same Ownership Concentration .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/BH73UBRI/Badr - 2021 - More or More of the Same Ownership Concentration .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{yanatma_advertising_2021,
	title = {Advertising and {Media} {Capture} in {Turkey}: {How} {Does} the {State} {Emerge} as the {Largest} {Advertiser} with the {Rise} of {Competitive} {Authoritarianism}?},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1940-1612, 1940-1620},
	shorttitle = {Advertising and {Media} {Capture} in {Turkey}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/19401612211018610},
	doi = {10.1177/19401612211018610},
	abstract = {This article examines the distribution of advertising in newspapers in Turkey and the impact of the government on the allocation, in particular, of official announcements and of advertising by partially state-owned enterprises and private companies loyal to the ruling party, as well as pressure on other commercial advertisers, during the rule of the Justice and Development Party between 2002 and 2020. It demonstrates that the government has, in the last decade, largely used the advertising sector as a “carrot and stick” tactic to control newspapers through the distribution of official announcements and advertising by state-owned enterprises. It further finds that the state has emerged in recent years as the largest advertiser financing the “captured media,” control of media ownership has proved to be not enough to ensure docile news media. Turkey has shifted to competitive authoritarianism in recent years, and this article demonstrates the selective allocation of advertising, which is a strong component of suppressing the independent media. The article uncovers the impact of government on advertising, using two data sets to show: (i) the total spend on official announcements received by each newspaper and (ii) how much advertising space in square centimeters state-owned enterprises have placed in each newspaper. Interviews with editors-in-chief of newspapers also expose the direct role of government in the distribution of advertising.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {The International Journal of Press/Politics},
	author = {Yanatma, Servet},
	month = oct,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {797--821},
	file = {Yanatma - 2021 - Advertising and Media Capture in Turkey How Does .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/TTR5W2X2/Yanatma - 2021 - Advertising and Media Capture in Turkey How Does .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{jordan_examining_2019,
	title = {Examining long-term trends in politics and culture through language of political leaders and cultural institutions},
	volume = {116},
	copyright = {© 2019 . https://www.pnas.org/site/aboutpnas/licenses.xhtmlPublished under the PNAS license.},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/116/9/3476},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1811987116},
	abstract = {From many perspectives, the election of Donald Trump was seen as a departure from long-standing political norms. An analysis of Trump’s word use in the presidential debates and speeches indicated that he was exceptionally informal but at the same time, spoke with a sense of certainty. Indeed, he is lower in analytic thinking and higher in confidence than almost any previous American president. Closer analyses of linguistic trends of presidential language indicate that Trump’s language is consistent with long-term linear trends, demonstrating that he is not as much an outlier as he initially seems. Across multiple corpora from the American presidents, non-US leaders, and legislative bodies spanning decades, there has been a general decline in analytic thinking and a rise in confidence in most political contexts, with the largest and most consistent changes found in the American presidency. The results suggest that certain aspects of the language style of Donald Trump and other recent leaders reflect long-evolving political trends. Implications of the changing nature of popular elections and the role of media are discussed.},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2021-08-30},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Jordan, Kayla N. and Sterling, Joanna and Pennebaker, James W. and Boyd, Ryan L.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2019},
	pmid = {30808741},
	note = {Publisher: National Academy of Sciences
Section: Social Sciences},
	keywords = {analytic thinking, confidence, culture, language analysis, political leadership},
	pages = {3476--3481},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/69FHP7H8/Jordan et al. - 2019 - Examining long-term trends in politics and culture.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/H3T6F9W4/3476.html:text/html},
}

@article{chong_framing_2007,
	title = {Framing {Theory}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1094-2939, 1545-1577},
	url = {http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.072805.103054},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.072805.103054},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-09-01},
	journal = {Annual Review of Political Science},
	author = {Chong, Dennis and Druckman, James N.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {103--126},
	file = {Chong and Druckman - 2007 - Framing Theory.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/C9FPA9XI/Chong and Druckman - 2007 - Framing Theory.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{baumer_testing_2015,
	address = {Denver, Colorado},
	title = {Testing and {Comparing} {Computational} {Approaches} for {Identifying} the {Language} of {Framing} in {Political} {News}},
	url = {http://aclweb.org/anthology/N15-1171},
	doi = {10.3115/v1/N15-1171},
	abstract = {The subconscious influence of framing on perceptions of political issues is well-document in political science and communication research. A related line of work suggests that drawing attention to framing may help reduce such framing effects by enabling frame reflection, critical examination of the framing underlying an issue. However, definite guidance on how to identify framing does not exist. This paper presents a technique for identifying frame-invoking language. The paper first describes a human subjects pilot study that explores how individuals identify framing and informs the design of our technique. The paper then describes our data collection and annotation approach. Results show that the best performing classifiers achieve performance comparable to that of human annotators, and they indicate which aspects of language most pertain to framing. Both technical and theoretical implications are discussed.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-09-01},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2015 {Conference} of the {North} {American} {Chapter} of the {Association} for {Computational} {Linguistics}: {Human} {Language} {Technologies}},
	publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
	author = {Baumer, Eric and Elovic, Elisha and Qin, Ying and Polletta, Francesca and Gay, Geri},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {1472--1482},
	file = {Baumer et al. - 2015 - Testing and Comparing Computational Approaches for.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AJDHHURL/Baumer et al. - 2015 - Testing and Comparing Computational Approaches for.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{suhay_how_2020,
	title = {How the {News} {Media} {Persuades}: {Framing} {Effects} and {Beyond}},
	isbn = {978-0-19-086080-6},
	shorttitle = {How the {News} {Media} {Persuades}},
	url = {https://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190860806.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190860806-e-4},
	abstract = {Framing research has greatly advanced our understanding of how mass communication shapes public opinion and political behavior. However, the dominance of the framing concept has limited integration across different theoretical approaches and concepts like priming, belief change, and persuasion, leading to theoretical confusion and empirical sloppiness. This chapter proposes a way to integrate various approaches to media effects and obtain more coherent, cumulative knowledge on how mass communication shapes political opinion. First, it distinguishes framing from other concepts, most notably persuasion, using the expectancy-value model as a common framework. Second, it discusses the implications of this more rigorous conceptualization for research design and offers an example of an experiment disentangling emphasis framing and persuasive information. Third, it highlights promising avenues for mass communication research emphasizing competition, dynamics over time, and struggle between political parties as key features of democratic politics.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-09-01},
	booktitle = {The {Oxford} {Handbook} of {Electoral} {Persuasion}},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Leeper, Thomas J. and Slothuus, Rune},
	editor = {Suhay, Elizabeth and Grofman, Bernard and Trechsel, Alexander H.},
	collaborator = {Leeper, Thomas J. and Slothuus, Rune},
	month = jun,
	year = {2020},
	doi = {10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190860806.013.4},
	pages = {150--168},
	file = {Leeper and Slothuus - 2020 - How the News Media Persuades Framing Effects and .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/RPQLS2YA/Leeper and Slothuus - 2020 - How the News Media Persuades Framing Effects and .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{kenski_state_2014,
	title = {The {State} of {Framing} {Research}},
	volume = {1},
	url = {http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199793471.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199793471-e-47},
	abstract = {This chapter provides an assessment of the state of research on framing, and examines how the concept of framing has been used across different disciplines. Using this overview, the authors explore two of the most common conceptual misunderstandings related to framing and their implications for political communication research. This includes an overview of the different approaches to framing in political communication research, more specifically, and of the relationship between framing and related effects models, such as priming and agenda setting. The authors conclude with a recommendation that framing research be redirected away from confounded “emphasis frames” toward “equivalence frames” in the original tradition by expanding the sample of potential frames to include nonverbal visual cues.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-09-01},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Scheufele, Dietram A. and Iyengar, Shanto},
	editor = {Kenski, Kate and Jamieson, Kathleen Hall},
	month = oct,
	year = {2014},
	doi = {10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199793471.013.47},
	file = {Scheufele and Iyengar - 2014 - The State of Framing Research.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8PMF7WKK/Scheufele and Iyengar - 2014 - The State of Framing Research.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{schatz_soft_2009,
	title = {The {Soft} {Authoritarian} {Tool} {Kit}: {Agenda}-{Setting} {Power} in {Kazakhstan} and {Kyrgyzstan}},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {00104159, 21516227},
	shorttitle = {The {Soft} {Authoritarian} {Tool} {Kit}},
	url = {http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/xref?genre=article&issn=0010-4159&volume=41&issue=2&spage=203},
	doi = {10.5129/001041509X12911362972034},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-09-10},
	journal = {Comparative Politics},
	author = {Schatz, Edward},
	month = jan,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {203--222},
	file = {Schatz - 2009 - The Soft Authoritarian Tool Kit Agenda-Setting Po.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/KNY7W3K2/Schatz - 2009 - The Soft Authoritarian Tool Kit Agenda-Setting Po.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{savin_fragility_2018,
	title = {Fragility of strong media effects in authoritarian environment ({Evidence} from {Russia})},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {0267-3231, 1460-3705},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0267323118775305},
	doi = {10.1177/0267323118775305},
	abstract = {The article is devoted to the issue to what extent mass media produces strong attitudes in an authoritarian political environment. A growing body of research scrutinizes how contemporary autocracies use media to promote legitimizing messages and undermine opposition. This study contributes to the literature by showing whether public opinion formed under authoritarianism is strong in the face of counterframing. While Russian state-owned TV-channels extensively promoted the idea that Donald Trump’s victory will be positive for Russian-American relations, we run an experimental study with various treatments. We revealed two major findings: (1) participants are strongly exposed to counterframing and (2) those who watch news on stateowned TV-channels are more susceptible to the counterframing effect.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2021-09-10},
	journal = {European Journal of Communication},
	author = {Savin, Nikita and Kashirskikh, Oleg and Mavletova, Aigul},
	month = oct,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {471--488},
	file = {Savin et al. - 2018 - Fragility of strong media effects in authoritarian.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/EIYBD3PF/Savin et al. - 2018 - Fragility of strong media effects in authoritarian.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{tang_alternative_2014,
	title = {Alternative framing: {The} effect of the {Internet} on political support in authoritarian {China}},
	volume = {35},
	issn = {0192-5121, 1460-373X},
	shorttitle = {Alternative framing},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0192512113501971},
	doi = {10.1177/0192512113501971},
	abstract = {This study seeks to identify and test a mechanism through which the Internet influences public support in an authoritarian environment in which alternative information is strictly censored by the state. Through online discussions, web users often interpret sanctioned news information in directions different from or even opposite to the intention of the authoritarian state. This alternative framing on the Internet can strongly affect the political views of web users. Through an experimental study conducted in China, we find that subjects exposed to alternative online framing generally hold lower levels of policy support and evaluate government performance more negatively. This finding implies that even though the access to information on sensitive topics is effectively controlled by the government, the diffusion capabilities of the Internet can still undermine the support basis of the seemingly stable authoritarian regime.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2021-09-10},
	journal = {International Political Science Review},
	author = {Tang, Min and Huhe, Narisong},
	month = nov,
	year = {2014},
	pages = {559--576},
	file = {Tang and Huhe - 2014 - Alternative framing The effect of the Internet on.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/P7GXD39C/Tang and Huhe - 2014 - Alternative framing The effect of the Internet on.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{carter_when_2021,
	title = {When {Autocrats} {Threaten} {Citizens} with {Violence}: {Evidence} from {China}},
	issn = {0007-1234, 1469-2112},
	shorttitle = {When {Autocrats} {Threaten} {Citizens} with {Violence}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007123420000575/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0007123420000575},
	abstract = {When do autocrats employ propaganda to threaten citizens with repression? Do threats of repression condition citizen behavior? This article develops a theory of propaganda-based threats in autocracies that builds on insights from experimental psychology. It argues that even credible threats of repression are costly, and so are reserved for moments when collective action is most likely. Since threats of repression are employed sparingly, the authors also expect them to be effective. The theory is tested using data from China, the world’s most populous autocracy. The study analyzes all 164,707 articles published between 2009 and 2016 in the Workers’ Daily, a state-run newspaper that focuses on domestic issues and targets a non-elite audience. It finds that the Chinese government employs propaganda-based threats of repression primarily around the anniversaries of ethnic separatist movements in Tibet and Xinjiang regions. Using an instrumental variables strategy, the study shows that these threats decrease protest rates by a substantively meaningful margin.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-09-10},
	journal = {British Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Carter, Erin Baggott and Carter, Brett L.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {1--26},
	file = {Carter and Carter - 2021 - When Autocrats Threaten Citizens with Violence Ev.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/98D3RJTJ/Carter and Carter - 2021 - When Autocrats Threaten Citizens with Violence Ev.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{esberg_censorship_2020,
	title = {Censorship as {Reward}: {Evidence} from {Pop} {Culture} {Censorship} in {Chile}},
	volume = {114},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	shorttitle = {Censorship as {Reward}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S000305542000026X/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S000305542000026X},
	abstract = {Censorship has traditionally been understood as a way for dictators to silence opposition. By contrast, this article develops and tests the theory that certain forms of censorship—in particular, prohibitions on popular culture—serve not only to limit political information but also to reward dictators’ supporters. Using text analysis of all 8,000 films reviewed for distribution during Chile’s dictatorship, I demonstrate that rather than focusing only on sensitive political topics, censors banned movies containing content considered immoral. Through a combination of qualitative and quantitative evidence, I show that these patterns cannot be explained by masked political content, distributor self-censorship, or censor preferences. Instead, they reflect the regime’s use of censorship as a reward for supporters, particularly conservative Catholic groups. My findings suggest that even repressive measures can be used in part to maintain support for authoritarian regimes.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-09-10},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {Esberg, Jane},
	month = aug,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {821--836},
	file = {Esberg - 2020 - Censorship as Reward Evidence from Pop Culture Ce.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/FQW3YAKX/Esberg - 2020 - Censorship as Reward Evidence from Pop Culture Ce.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{huang_propaganda_nodate,
	title = {Propaganda, {Presumed} {Influence}, and {Collective} {Protest}},
	abstract = {Political propaganda can reduce citizens’ inclinations to protest by directly influencing their preferences or beliefs about the government. However, given that protest is risky in authoritarian societies and requires collective participation, propaganda can also reduce citizens’ inclination to protest by making them think that other citizens, rather than themselves, may have been influenced by propaganda and are, as a result, unwilling to protest. We test this indirect mechanism of propaganda using a survey experiment with Chinese internet users from diverse backgrounds and find that they do believe propaganda affects other citizens’ support for and beliefs about the government more than their own support and beliefs. Moreover, they believe that propaganda reduces other citizens’ willingness to protest, which in turn reduces their own willingness to protest. Therefore, the power of propaganda may sometimes lie more in the social perceptions and uncertainty it creates than in its direct individual effects.},
	language = {en},
	journal = {Political Behavior},
	author = {Huang, Haifeng},
	pages = {24},
	file = {Huang - Propaganda, Presumed Influence, and Collective Pro.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/UE77VWKQ/Huang - Propaganda, Presumed Influence, and Collective Pro.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{calhoun_world_2008,
	title = {A {World} of {Emergencies}: {Fear}, {Intervention}, and the {Limits} of {Cosmopolitan} {Order}*},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {17556171, 1755618X},
	shorttitle = {A {World} of {Emergencies}},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-618X.2004.tb00783.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1755-618X.2004.tb00783.x},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-10-08},
	journal = {Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie},
	author = {Calhoun, Craig},
	month = jul,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {373--395},
	file = {Calhoun - 2008 - A World of Emergencies Fear, Intervention, and th.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CW4LDY7T/Calhoun - 2008 - A World of Emergencies Fear, Intervention, and th.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{calhoun_world_2008-1,
	title = {A {World} of {Emergencies}: {Fear}, {Intervention}, and the {Limits} of {Cosmopolitan} {Order}*},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {17556171, 1755618X},
	shorttitle = {A {World} of {Emergencies}},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-618X.2004.tb00783.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1755-618X.2004.tb00783.x},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-10-08},
	journal = {Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie},
	author = {Calhoun, Craig},
	month = jul,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {373--395},
	file = {Calhoun - 2008 - A World of Emergencies Fear, Intervention, and th.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/54WZASDG/Calhoun - 2008 - A World of Emergencies Fear, Intervention, and th.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{opitz_future_2015,
	title = {Future {Emergencies}: {Temporal} {Politics} in {Law} and {Economy}},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0263-2764, 1460-3616},
	shorttitle = {Future {Emergencies}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0263276414560416},
	doi = {10.1177/0263276414560416},
	abstract = {This article develops a notion of the ‘politics of time’ in order to analyse the effects that imaginations of future emergencies have in the fields of law and economy. Building on Niklas Luhmann’s theory of social time, it focuses on the multiplex temporalities in contemporary society, which are shown to interact differently with the ‘emergency imaginary’. We demonstrate that the apprehension of the future in terms of sudden, unpredictable and potentially catastrophic events reinforces current modes of producing financial futurity, while it undermines the procedural rhythm and retroactive sentencing of liberal law. As a whole, the article supplements the analysis of the ‘politics of truth’ prevalent in the current debate about precaution and pre-emption with a theoretical perspective on social temporality.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-10-08},
	journal = {Theory, Culture \& Society},
	author = {Opitz, Sven and Tellmann, Ute},
	month = mar,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {107--129},
	file = {Opitz and Tellmann - 2015 - Future Emergencies Temporal Politics in Law and E.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8FRZDEUQ/Opitz and Tellmann - 2015 - Future Emergencies Temporal Politics in Law and E.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hoffmann_human_2016,
	title = {Human {Rights} and {History}},
	volume = {232},
	issn = {0031-2746, 1477-464X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/past/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/pastj/gtw013},
	doi = {10.1093/pastj/gtw013},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-10-08},
	journal = {Past \& Present},
	author = {Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig},
	month = aug,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {279--310},
	file = {Hoffmann - 2016 - Human Rights and History.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/FKSGPXZJ/Hoffmann - 2016 - Human Rights and History.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hunt_long_2016,
	title = {The {Long} and the {Short} of the {History} of {Human} {Rights}},
	volume = {233},
	issn = {0031-2746, 1477-464X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/past/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/pastj/gtw044},
	doi = {10.1093/pastj/gtw044},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-10-08},
	journal = {Past \& Present},
	author = {Hunt, Lynn},
	month = nov,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {323--331},
	file = {Hunt - 2016 - The Long and the Short of the History of Human Rig.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/62L5E82I/Hunt - 2016 - The Long and the Short of the History of Human Rig.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kroon_guilty_2021,
	title = {Guilty by {Association}: {Using} {Word} {Embeddings} to {Measure} {Ethnic} {Stereotypes} in {News} {Coverage}},
	volume = {98},
	issn = {1077-6990, 2161-430X},
	shorttitle = {Guilty by {Association}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1077699020932304},
	doi = {10.1177/1077699020932304},
	abstract = {The current study provides a new level of empirical evidence for the nature of ethnic stereotypes in news content by drawing on a sample of more than 3 million Dutch news items. The study’s findings demonstrate that universally accepted dimensions of stereotype content (i.e., low-status and high-threat attributes) can be replicated in news media content across a diverse set of ingroup and outgroup categories. Representations of minorities in newspapers have become progressively remote from factual integration outcomes, and are therefore rather an artifact of news production processes than a true reflection of what is actually happening in society.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-10-08},
	journal = {Journalism \& Mass Communication Quarterly},
	author = {Kroon, Anne C. and Trilling, Damian and Raats, Tamara},
	month = jun,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {451--477},
	file = {Kroon et al. - 2021 - Guilty by Association Using Word Embeddings to Me.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CWCM352Q/Kroon et al. - 2021 - Guilty by Association Using Word Embeddings to Me.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{bunce_humanitarian_2019,
	title = {Humanitarian {Journalism}},
	isbn = {978-0-19-022861-3},
	url = {https://oxfordre.com/communication/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228613-e-821},
	abstract = {Humanitarian journalism can be defined, very broadly, as the production of factual accounts about crises and issues that affect human welfare. This can be broken down into two broad approaches: “traditional” reporting about humanitarian crises and issues, and advocacy journalism that aims to improve humanitarian outcomes. In practice, there is overlap between the two approaches. Mainstream journalists have long helped to raise awareness and funds for humanitarian crises, as well as provide early emergency warnings and monitor the treatment of citizens. Meanwhile, aid agencies and humanitarian campaigners frequently subsidize or directly provide journalistic content.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-10-08},
	booktitle = {Oxford {Research} {Encyclopedia} of {Communication}},
	publisher = {Oxford University Press},
	author = {Bunce, Mel and Scott, Martin and Wright, Kate},
	collaborator = {Bunce, Mel and Scott, Martin and Wright, Kate},
	month = mar,
	year = {2019},
	doi = {10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.821},
	file = {Bunce et al. - 2019 - Humanitarian Journalism.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CF5H7EZH/Bunce et al. - 2019 - Humanitarian Journalism.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{wilkinson_provocation_2013,
	title = {The provocation of the humanitarian social imaginary},
	volume = {12},
	issn = {1470-3572, 1741-3214},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1470357213483061},
	doi = {10.1177/1470357213483061},
	abstract = {This article reviews recent attempts to analyse the visibility that is brought to human suffering within ‘social imaginaries’ committed to humanitarian concerns. It questions the conventions of critique that operate to cast the humanitarian social imaginary as a negative development within our political culture. It is designed to encourage a more critically reflexive and historically informed approach to the work of critique. It also argues that it is possible to trace a tradition in which humanitarian campaigners operate with the aim of appropriating the critical reaction to their work as part of their political strategy. In this regard, campaigners are more concerned to provoke moral controversy than to fashion ‘winning arguments’. Here the visualization of human suffering is valued more for its potential to generate value conflicts than for the extent to which it serves as an authentic or ideologically uncontaminated representation of social reality.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-10-08},
	journal = {Visual Communication},
	author = {Wilkinson, Iain},
	month = aug,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {261--276},
	file = {Wilkinson - 2013 - The provocation of the humanitarian social imagina.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/IC35XWB5/Wilkinson - 2013 - The provocation of the humanitarian social imagina.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{beckett_politics_2013,
	title = {The {Politics} of {Emergency}},
	volume = {42},
	issn = {0093-8157, 1556-3014},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00938157.2013.788348},
	doi = {10.1080/00938157.2013.788348},
	abstract = {Military and humanitarian interventions have become commonplace in recent years, provoking some to suggest that the right to intervene in the face of an emergency has become a new global norm. Emergencies and interventions pose unique challenges for political and legal theories of sovereignty, legitimacy, and democracy. Political anthropologists and other social scientists have focused on critiques of sovereign power and military and humanitarian interventions, but more attention to the cultural aspects of how emergencies operate and to the positive and negative effects they might have on political and social life is needed.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-10-08},
	journal = {Reviews in Anthropology},
	author = {Beckett, Greg},
	month = apr,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {85--101},
	file = {Beckett - 2013 - The Politics of Emergency.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/4S3KELDH/Beckett - 2013 - The Politics of Emergency.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kusner_word_nodate,
	title = {From {Word} {Embeddings} {To} {Document} {Distances}},
	abstract = {We present the Word Mover’s Distance (WMD), a novel distance function between text documents. Our work is based on recent results in word embeddings that learn semantically meaningful representations for words from local cooccurrences in sentences. The WMD distance measures the dissimilarity between two text documents as the minimum amount of distance that the embedded words of one document need to “travel” to reach the embedded words of another document. We show that this distance metric can be cast as an instance of the Earth Mover’s Distance, a well studied transportation problem for which several highly efficient solvers have been developed. Our metric has no hyperparameters and is straight-forward to implement. Further, we demonstrate on eight real world document classification data sets, in comparison with seven stateof-the-art baselines, that the WMD metric leads to unprecedented low k-nearest neighbor document classification error rates.},
	language = {en},
	author = {Kusner, Matt J and Sun, Yu and Kolkin, Nicholas I and Weinberger, Kilian Q},
	pages = {10},
	file = {Kusner et al. - From Word Embeddings To Document Distances.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/PD3ZG72Q/Kusner et al. - From Word Embeddings To Document Distances.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@misc{noauthor_prevalence_nodate,
	title = {Prevalence of {Prejudice}-{Denoting} {Words} in {News} {Media} {Discourse}: {A} {Chronological} {Analysis} - {David} {Rozado}, {Musa} {Al}-{Gharbi}, {Jamin} {Halberstadt}, 2021},
	url = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/08944393211031452},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	file = {Prevalence of Prejudice-Denoting Words in News Media Discourse\: A Chronological Analysis - David Rozado, Musa Al-Gharbi, Jamin Halberstadt, 2021:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/RA4358SX/08944393211031452.html:text/html},
}

@article{rozado_prevalence_2021,
	title = {Prevalence of {Prejudice}-{Denoting} {Words} in {News} {Media} {Discourse}: {A} {Chronological} {Analysis}},
	issn = {0894-4393, 1552-8286},
	shorttitle = {Prevalence of {Prejudice}-{Denoting} {Words} in {News} {Media} {Discourse}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/08944393211031452},
	doi = {10.1177/08944393211031452},
	abstract = {This work analyzes the prevalence of words denoting prejudice in 27 million news and opinion articles written between 1970 and 2019 and published in 47 of the most popular news media outlets in the United States. Our results show that the frequency of words that denote specific prejudice types related to ethnicity, gender, sexual, and religious orientation has markedly increased within the 2010–2019 decade across most news media outlets. This phenomenon starts prior to, but appears to accelerate after, 2015. The frequency of prejudice-denoting words in news articles is not synchronous across all outlets, with the yearly prevalence of such words in some influential news media outlets being predictive of those words’ usage frequency in other outlets the following year. Increasing prevalence of prejudice-denoting words in news media discourse is often substantially correlated with U.S. public opinion survey data on growing perceptions of minorities’ mistreatment. Granger tests suggest that the prevalence of prejudice-denoting terms in news outlets might be predictive of shifts in public perceptions of prejudice severity in society for some, but not all, types of prejudice.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Social Science Computer Review},
	author = {Rozado, David and Al-Gharbi, Musa and Halberstadt, Jamin},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {089443932110314},
	file = {Rozado et al. - 2021 - Prevalence of Prejudice-Denoting Words in News Med.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/GA6FM3VU/Rozado et al. - 2021 - Prevalence of Prejudice-Denoting Words in News Med.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{manning_introduction_2007,
	address = {Cambridge},
	title = {Introduction to {Information} {Retrieval}},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Manning, Christopher D and Raghavan, Prabhakar and Schtze, Hinrich},
	year = {2007},
}

@article{grimmer_text_2013,
	title = {Text as {Data}: {The} {Promise} and {Pitfalls} of {Automatic} {Content} {Analysis} {Methods} for {Political} {Texts}},
	volume = {21},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	shorttitle = {Text as {Data}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198700013401/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1093/pan/mps028},
	abstract = {Politics and political conflict often occur in the written and spoken word. Scholars have long recognized this, but the massive costs of analyzing even moderately sized collections of texts have hindered their use in political science research. Here lies the promise of automated text analysis: it substantially reduces the costs of analyzing large collections of text. We provide a guide to this exciting new area of research and show how, in many instances, the methods have already obtained part of their promise. But there are pitfalls to using automated methods—they are no substitute for careful thought and close reading and require extensive and problem-specific validation. We survey a wide range of new methods, provide guidance on how to validate the output of the models, and clarify misconceptions and errors in the literature. To conclude, we argue that for automated text methods to become a standard tool for political scientists, methodologists must contribute new methods and new methods of validation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Grimmer, Justin and Stewart, Brandon M.},
	year = {2013},
	pages = {267--297},
	file = {Grimmer and Stewart - 2013 - Text as Data The Promise and Pitfalls of Automati.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/9FJJK9PF/Grimmer and Stewart - 2013 - Text as Data The Promise and Pitfalls of Automati.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{dimaggio_adapting_2015,
	title = {Adapting computational text analysis to social science (and vice versa)},
	volume = {2},
	issn = {2053-9517, 2053-9517},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053951715602908},
	doi = {10.1177/2053951715602908},
	abstract = {Social scientists and computer scientist are divided by small differences in perspective and not by any significant disciplinary divide. In the field of text analysis, several such differences are noted: social scientists often use unsupervised models to explore corpora, whereas many computer scientists employ supervised models to train data; social scientists hold to more conventional causal notions than do most computer scientists, and often favor intense exploitation of existing algorithms, whereas computer scientists focus more on developing new models; and computer scientists tend to trust human judgment more than social scientists do. These differences have implications that potentially can improve the practice of social science.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Big Data \& Society},
	author = {DiMaggio, Paul},
	month = dec,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {205395171560290},
	file = {DiMaggio - 2015 - Adapting computational text analysis to social sci.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZTJD5N5G/DiMaggio - 2015 - Adapting computational text analysis to social sci.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mohr_introductiontopic_2013,
	title = {Introduction—{Topic} models: {What} they are and why they matter},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0304422X},
	shorttitle = {Introduction—{Topic} models},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304422X13000685},
	doi = {10.1016/j.poetic.2013.10.001},
	abstract = {We provide a brief, non-technical introduction to the text mining methodology known as ‘‘topic modeling.’’ We summarize the theory and background of the method and discuss what kinds of things are found by topic models. Using a text corpus comprised of the eight articles from the special issue of Poetics on the subject of topic models, we run a topic model on these articles, both as a way to introduce the methodology and also to help summarize some of the ways in which social and cultural scientists are using topic models. We review some of the critiques and debates over the use of the method and finally, we link these developments back to some of the original innovations in the field of content analysis that were pioneered by Harold D. Lasswell and colleagues during and just after World War II.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Poetics},
	author = {Mohr, John W. and Bogdanov, Petko},
	month = dec,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {545--569},
	file = {Mohr and Bogdanov - 2013 - Introduction—Topic models What they are and why t.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/WFWAQUS3/Mohr and Bogdanov - 2013 - Introduction—Topic models What they are and why t.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{grimmer_comment_nodate,
	title = {Comment: {Evaluating} {Model} {Performance} in {Fictitious} {Prediction} {Problems}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Grimmer, Justin},
	pages = {3},
	file = {Grimmer - Comment Evaluating Model Performance in Fictitiou.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/DRAWT9RH/Grimmer - Comment Evaluating Model Performance in Fictitiou.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{curini_text_2020,
	address = {1 Oliver's Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP},
	title = {Text as {Data}: {An} {Overview}},
	isbn = {978-1-5264-5993-0 978-1-5264-8638-7},
	shorttitle = {Text as {Data}},
	url = {https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-handbook-of-research-methods-in-political-science-and-ir/i4365.xml},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	booktitle = {The {SAGE} {Handbook} of {Research} {Methods} in {Political} {Science} and {International} {Relations}},
	publisher = {SAGE Publications Ltd},
	author = {Benoit, Ken},
	collaborator = {Curini, Luigi and Franzese, Robert},
	year = {2020},
	doi = {10.4135/9781526486387.n29},
	pages = {461--497},
	file = {Benoit - 2020 - Text as Data An Overview.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/SM79R248/Benoit - 2020 - Text as Data An Overview.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{naldi_review_2019,
	title = {A review of sentiment computation methods with {R} packages},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/1901.08319},
	abstract = {Four packages in R are analyzed to carry out sentiment analysis. All packages allow to define custom dictionaries. Just one - SentimentR properly accounts for the presence of negators.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {arXiv:1901.08319 [cs]},
	author = {Naldi, Maurizio},
	month = jan,
	year = {2019},
	note = {arXiv: 1901.08319},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language},
	file = {Naldi - 2019 - A review of sentiment computation methods with R p.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ADMWAX66/Naldi - 2019 - A review of sentiment computation methods with R p.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@techreport{ziblatt_wealth_2020,
	title = {Wealth of {Tongues}: {Why} {Peripheral} {Regions} {Vote} for the {Radical} {Right} in {Germany}},
	shorttitle = {Wealth of {Tongues}},
	url = {https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/syr84/},
	abstract = {Why do voters for the radical right tend to cluster in specific geographic locations? Many scholars have emphasized the economic roots of radical right support. Other scholarship highlights the role of the urban-rural divide, contending that the radical right finds support in low population density locations due to distinctive social values and strong place-based social identities found in rural areas. To date, however, we do not have a full grasp of the sources of these latter factors nor an understanding of the historical roots that explain their emergence. We argue that what is frequently classified as the ``rural'' bases of radical right support in previous research is in part a proxy for something entirely different: communities that were in the historical "periphery" in the center-periphery conflicts that shaped modern nation-state formation. Inspired by a classic state-building literature that emphasizes the prevalence of a ``wealth of tongues'' (Weber 1976)---or nonstandard linguistic dialects in a region---as a definition of the periphery, we use data from more than 725,000 geo-coded responses in a linguistic survey in Germany to show that voters from historically peripheral geographic communities are more likely to vote for the radical right today.},
	language = {en-us},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	institution = {SocArXiv},
	author = {Ziblatt, Daniel and Hilbig, Hanno and Bischof, Daniel},
	month = apr,
	year = {2020},
	doi = {10.31235/osf.io/syr84},
	note = {type: article},
	keywords = {AfD, Comparative Politics, dialect, locality, nationalism, parochialism, place-based identity, Political Science, radical right, Social and Behavioral Sciences, voting},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/GNDDDUDA/Ziblatt et al. - 2020 - Wealth of Tongues Why Peripheral Regions Vote for.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{dodds_measuring_2010,
	title = {Measuring the {Happiness} of {Large}-{Scale} {Written} {Expression}: {Songs}, {Blogs}, and {Presidents}},
	volume = {11},
	issn = {1389-4978, 1573-7780},
	shorttitle = {Measuring the {Happiness} of {Large}-{Scale} {Written} {Expression}},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10902-009-9150-9},
	doi = {10.1007/s10902-009-9150-9},
	abstract = {The importance of quantifying the nature and intensity of emotional states at the level of populations is evident: we would like to know how, when, and why individuals feel as they do if we wish, for example, to better construct public policy, build more successful organizations, and, from a scientific perspective, more fully understand economic and social phenomena. Here, by incorporating direct human assessment of words, we quantify happiness levels on a continuous scale for a diverse set of large-scale texts: song titles and lyrics, weblogs, and State of the Union addresses. Our method is transparent, improvable, capable of rapidly processing Web-scale texts, and moves beyond approaches based on coarse categorization. Among a number of observations, we find that the happiness of song lyrics trends downward from the 1960s to the mid 1990s while remaining stable within genres, and that the happiness of blogs has steadily increased from 2005 to 2009, exhibiting a striking rise and fall with blogger age and distance from the Earth’s equator.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Journal of Happiness Studies},
	author = {Dodds, Peter Sheridan and Danforth, Christopher M.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {441--456},
	file = {Dodds and Danforth - 2010 - Measuring the Happiness of Large-Scale Written Exp.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/C5TNFC99/Dodds and Danforth - 2010 - Measuring the Happiness of Large-Scale Written Exp.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{chuang_without_2012,
	title = {“{Without} the clutter of unimportant words”: {Descriptive} keyphrases for text visualization},
	volume = {19},
	issn = {1073-0516, 1557-7325},
	shorttitle = {“{Without} the clutter of unimportant words”},
	url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2362364.2362367},
	doi = {10.1145/2362364.2362367},
	abstract = {Keyphrases aid the exploration of text collections by communicating salient aspects of documents and are often used to create effective visualizations of text. While prior work in HCI and visualization has proposed a variety of ways of presenting keyphrases, less attention has been paid to selecting the best descriptive terms. In this article, we investigate the statistical and linguistic properties of keyphrases chosen by human judges and determine which features are most predictive of high-quality descriptive phrases. Based on 5,611 responses from 69 graduate students describing a corpus of dissertation abstracts, we analyze characteristics of human-generated keyphrases, including phrase length, commonness, position, and part of speech. Next, we systematically assess the contribution of each feature within statistical models of keyphrase quality. We then introduce a method for grouping similar terms and varying the specificity of displayed phrases so that applications can select phrases dynamically based on the available screen space and current context of interaction. Precision-recall measures find that our technique generates keyphrases that match those selected by human judges. Crowdsourced ratings of tag cloud visualizations rank our approach above other automatic techniques. Finally, we discuss the role of HCI methods in developing new algorithmic techniques suitable for user-facing applications.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction},
	author = {Chuang, Jason and Manning, Christopher D. and Heer, Jeffrey},
	month = oct,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {1--29},
	file = {Chuang et al. - 2012 - “Without the clutter of unimportant words” Descri.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/NYNXKRZX/Chuang et al. - 2012 - “Without the clutter of unimportant words” Descri.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{grimmer_general_2011,
	title = {General purpose computer-assisted clustering and conceptualization},
	volume = {108},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1018067108},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1018067108},
	language = {en},
	number = {7},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Grimmer, J. and King, G.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {2643--2650},
	file = {Grimmer and King - 2011 - General purpose computer-assisted clustering and c.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/F7UQZH9S/Grimmer and King - 2011 - General purpose computer-assisted clustering and c.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{schoonvelde_friends_2019,
	title = {Friends with text as data benefits: {Assessing} and extending the use of automated text analysis in political science and political psychology},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {2195-3325},
	shorttitle = {Friends with text as data benefits},
	url = {https://jspp.psychopen.eu/index.php/jspp/article/view/5115},
	doi = {10.5964/jspp.v7i1.964},
	abstract = {Applications of automated text analysis measuring topics, ideology, sentiment or even personality are booming in fields like political science and political psychology. These developments are to be applauded as they bring about novel insights about politics using new sources of (unstructured) data. However, a divide exists between work in both disciplines using text as data. In this paper we argue in favor of more integration across disciplinary boundaries, structuring our case around four key issues in the research process: (i) sampling text; (ii) authorship as meta data; (iii) pre-processing text; (iv) analyzing text. Along the way we demonstrate that an assessment of speaker characteristics may crucially depend on the text sources under study, and that the use of sentiment words correlates with estimates of policy positions, with implications for interpretation of the latter. As such, this paper contributes to a critical discussion about the merits of automated text analysis methods in political psychology and political science, with an eye towards advancing the considerable potential of text as data in the study of politics.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Journal of Social and Political Psychology},
	author = {Schoonvelde, Martijn and Schumacher, Gijs and Bakker, Bert N.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {124--143},
	file = {Schoonvelde et al. - 2019 - Friends with text as data benefits Assessing and .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8RTQPI5N/Schoonvelde et al. - 2019 - Friends with text as data benefits Assessing and .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{noauthor_inference_2021,
	title = {Inference in an {Authorship} {Problem}},
	language = {en},
	year = {2021},
	pages = {36},
	file = {2021 - Inference in an Authorship Problem.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/Q2Q46IRM/2021 - Inference in an Authorship Problem.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{barbera_understanding_2015,
	title = {Understanding the {Political} {Representativeness} of {Twitter} {Users}},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {0894-4393, 1552-8286},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0894439314558836},
	doi = {10.1177/0894439314558836},
	abstract = {In this article, we analyze the structure and content of the political conversations that took place through the microblogging platform Twitter in the context of the 2011 Spanish legislative elections and the 2012 U.S. presidential elections. Using a unique database of nearly 70 million tweets collected during both election campaigns, we find that Twitter replicates most of the existing inequalities in public political exchanges. Twitter users who write about politics tend to be male, to live in urban areas, and to have extreme ideological preferences. Our results have important implications for future research on the relationship between social media and politics, since they highlight the need to correct for potential biases derived from these sources of inequality.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Social Science Computer Review},
	author = {Barberá, Pablo and Rivero, Gonzalo},
	month = dec,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {712--729},
	file = {Barberá and Rivero - 2015 - Understanding the Political Representativeness of .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/M87UQRYS/Barberá and Rivero - 2015 - Understanding the Political Representativeness of .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rozado_prevalence_2021-1,
	title = {Prevalence of {Prejudice}-{Denoting} {Words} in {News} {Media} {Discourse}: {A} {Chronological} {Analysis}},
	issn = {0894-4393, 1552-8286},
	shorttitle = {Prevalence of {Prejudice}-{Denoting} {Words} in {News} {Media} {Discourse}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/08944393211031452},
	doi = {10.1177/08944393211031452},
	abstract = {This work analyzes the prevalence of words denoting prejudice in 27 million news and opinion articles written between 1970 and 2019 and published in 47 of the most popular news media outlets in the United States. Our results show that the frequency of words that denote specific prejudice types related to ethnicity, gender, sexual, and religious orientation has markedly increased within the 2010–2019 decade across most news media outlets. This phenomenon starts prior to, but appears to accelerate after, 2015. The frequency of prejudice-denoting words in news articles is not synchronous across all outlets, with the yearly prevalence of such words in some influential news media outlets being predictive of those words’ usage frequency in other outlets the following year. Increasing prevalence of prejudice-denoting words in news media discourse is often substantially correlated with U.S. public opinion survey data on growing perceptions of minorities’ mistreatment. Granger tests suggest that the prevalence of prejudice-denoting terms in news outlets might be predictive of shifts in public perceptions of prejudice severity in society for some, but not all, types of prejudice.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Social Science Computer Review},
	author = {Rozado, David and Al-Gharbi, Musa and Halberstadt, Jamin},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {089443932110314},
	file = {Rozado et al. - 2021 - Prevalence of Prejudice-Denoting Words in News Med.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/HBR3EPBF/Rozado et al. - 2021 - Prevalence of Prejudice-Denoting Words in News Med.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{roberts_model_2016,
	title = {A {Model} of {Text} for {Experimentation} in the {Social} {Sciences}},
	volume = {111},
	issn = {0162-1459, 1537-274X},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01621459.2016.1141684},
	doi = {10.1080/01621459.2016.1141684},
	abstract = {Statistical models of text have become increasingly popular in statistics and computer science as a method of exploring large document collections. Social scientists often want to move beyond exploration, to measurement and experimentation, and make inference about social and political processes that drive discourse and content. In this article, we develop a model of text data that supports this type of substantive research. Our approach is to posit a hierarchical mixed membership model for analyzing topical content of documents, in which mixing weights are parameterized by observed covariates. In this model, topical prevalence and topical content are specified as a simple generalized linear model on an arbitrary number of documentlevel covariates, such as news source and time of release, enabling researchers to introduce elements of the experimental design that informed document collection into the model, within a generally applicable framework. We demonstrate the proposed methodology by analyzing a collection of news reports about China, where we allow the prevalence of topics to evolve over time and vary across newswire services. Our methods quantify the effect of news wire source on both the frequency and nature of topic coverage. Supplementary materials for this article are available online.},
	language = {en},
	number = {515},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Journal of the American Statistical Association},
	author = {Roberts, Margaret E. and Stewart, Brandon M. and Airoldi, Edoardo M.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {988--1003},
	file = {Roberts et al. - 2016 - A Model of Text for Experimentation in the Social .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/PLERLNPF/Roberts et al. - 2016 - A Model of Text for Experimentation in the Social .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{loughran_when_2011,
	title = {When {Is} a {Liability} {Not} a {Liability}? {Textual} {Analysis}, {Dictionaries}, and 10-{Ks}},
	volume = {66},
	issn = {00221082},
	shorttitle = {When {Is} a {Liability} {Not} a {Liability}?},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-6261.2010.01625.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1540-6261.2010.01625.x},
	abstract = {Previous research uses negative word counts to measure the tone of a text. We show that word lists developed for other disciplines misclassify common words in financial text. In a large sample of 10-Ks during 1994 to 2008, almost three-fourths of the words identified as negative by the widely used Harvard Dictionary are words typically not considered negative in financial contexts. We develop an alternative negative word list, along with five other word lists, that better reflect tone in financial text. We link the word lists to 10-K filing returns, trading volume, return volatility, fraud, material weakness, and unexpected earnings.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {The Journal of Finance},
	author = {Loughran, Tim and Mcdonald, Bill},
	month = feb,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {35--65},
	file = {Loughran and Mcdonald - 2011 - When Is a Liability Not a Liability Textual Analy.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/PWW2REM2/Loughran and Mcdonald - 2011 - When Is a Liability Not a Liability Textual Analy.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{grimmer_machine_2021,
	title = {Machine {Learning} for {Social} {Science}: {An} {Agnostic} {Approach}},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {1094-2939, 1545-1577},
	shorttitle = {Machine {Learning} for {Social} {Science}},
	url = {https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-polisci-053119-015921},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-polisci-053119-015921},
	abstract = {Social scientists are now in an era of data abundance, and machine learning tools are increasingly used to extract meaning from data sets, both massive and small. We explain how the inclusion of machine learning into the social sciences requires us to rethink both how machine learning methods have been applied and the best practices in the social sciences. Rather than the traditional tasks for machine learning in computer science and statistics, we explain how when machine learning is applied to social scientific data it is used to discover new concepts, measure the prevalence of those concepts, assess causal effects and make predictions. We also describe how the abundance of data and resources facilitates the move away from a deductive social science to a more sequential, interactive, and ultimately inductive approach to inference. We explain how an agnostic approach to machine learning methods focused on the social science tasks facilitates progress across a wide range of questions.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Annual Review of Political Science},
	author = {Grimmer, Justin and Roberts, Margaret E. and Stewart, Brandon M.},
	month = may,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {395--419},
	file = {Grimmer et al. - 2021 - Machine Learning for Social Science An Agnostic A.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZL8ACSCD/Grimmer et al. - 2021 - Machine Learning for Social Science An Agnostic A.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{slapin_scaling_2008,
	title = {A {Scaling} {Model} for {Estimating} {Time}-{Series} {Party} {Positions} from {Texts}},
	volume = {52},
	issn = {00925853, 15405907},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00338.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00338.x},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Slapin, Jonathan B. and Proksch, Sven-Oliver},
	month = jul,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {705--722},
	file = {Slapin and Proksch - 2008 - A Scaling Model for Estimating Time-Series Party P.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JWRFSM6D/Slapin and Proksch - 2008 - A Scaling Model for Estimating Time-Series Party P.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{benoit_treating_2009,
	title = {Treating {Words} as {Data} with {Error}: {Uncertainty} in {Text} {Statements} of {Policy} {Positions}},
	volume = {53},
	issn = {00925853, 15405907},
	shorttitle = {Treating {Words} as {Data} with {Error}},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00383.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00383.x},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Benoit, Kenneth and Laver, Michael and Mikhaylov, Slava},
	month = apr,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {495--513},
	file = {Benoit et al. - 2009 - Treating Words as Data with Error Uncertainty in .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CDJH9I42/Benoit et al. - 2009 - Treating Words as Data with Error Uncertainty in .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{quinn_how_2010,
	title = {How to {Analyze} {Political} {Attention} with {Minimal} {Assumptions} and {Costs}},
	volume = {54},
	issn = {00925853, 15405907},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00427.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00427.x},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Quinn, Kevin M. and Monroe, Burt L. and Colaresi, Michael and Crespin, Michael H. and Radev, Dragomir R.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {209--228},
	file = {Quinn et al. - 2010 - How to Analyze Political Attention with Minimal As.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/LFWFDAVT/Quinn et al. - 2010 - How to Analyze Political Attention with Minimal As.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{beauchamp_predicting_2017,
	title = {Predicting and {Interpolating} {State}‐{Level} {Polls} {Using} {Twitter} {Textual} {Data}},
	volume = {61},
	issn = {0092-5853, 1540-5907},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajps.12274},
	doi = {10.1111/ajps.12274},
	abstract = {Spatially or temporally dense polling remains both difficult and expensive using existing survey methods. In response, there have been increasing efforts to approximate various survey measures using social media, but most of these approaches remain methodologically flawed. To remedy these flaws, this article combines 1,200 state-level polls during the 2012 presidential campaign with over 100 million state-located political tweets; models the polls as a function of the Twitter text using a new linear regularization feature-selection method; and shows via out-of-sample testing that when properly modeled, the Twitter-based measures track and to some degree predict opinion polls, and can be extended to unpolled states and potentially substate regions and subday timescales. An examination of the most predictive textual features reveals the topics and events associated with opinion shifts, sheds light on more general theories of partisan difference in attention and information processing, and may be of use for real-time campaign strategy.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Beauchamp, Nicholas},
	month = apr,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {490--503},
	file = {Beauchamp - 2017 - Predicting and Interpolating State‐Level Polls Usi.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/2HIKKKHH/Beauchamp - 2017 - Predicting and Interpolating State‐Level Polls Usi.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{benoit_measuring_2019-1,
	title = {Measuring and {Explaining} {Political} {Sophistication} through {Textual} {Complexity}},
	volume = {63},
	issn = {0092-5853, 1540-5907},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajps.12423},
	doi = {10.1111/ajps.12423},
	abstract = {Political scientists lack domain-specific measures for the purpose of measuring the sophistication of political communication. We systematically review the shortcomings of existing approaches, before developing a new and better method along with software tools to apply it. We use crowdsourcing to perform thousands of pairwise comparisons of text snippets and incorporate these results into a statistical model of sophistication. This includes previously excluded features such as parts of speech and a measure of word rarity derived from dynamic term frequencies in the Google Books data set. Our technique not only shows which features are appropriate to the political domain and how, but also provides a measure easily applied and rescaled to political texts in a way that facilitates probabilistic comparisons. We reanalyze the State of the Union corpus to demonstrate how conclusions differ when using our improved approach, including the ability to compare complexity as a function of covariates.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Benoit, Kenneth and Munger, Kevin and Spirling, Arthur},
	month = apr,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {491--508},
	file = {Benoit et al. - 2019 - Measuring and Explaining Political Sophistication .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/G3JT23CG/Benoit et al. - 2019 - Measuring and Explaining Political Sophistication .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{wilkerson_large-scale_2017-1,
	title = {Large-{Scale} {Computerized} {Text} {Analysis} in {Political} {Science}: {Opportunities} and {Challenges}},
	volume = {20},
	issn = {1094-2939, 1545-1577},
	shorttitle = {Large-{Scale} {Computerized} {Text} {Analysis} in {Political} {Science}},
	url = {https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-polisci-052615-025542},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-polisci-052615-025542},
	abstract = {Text has always been an important data source in political science. What has changed in recent years is the feasibility of investigating large amounts of text quantitatively. The internet provides political scientists with more data than their mentors could have imagined, and the research community is providing accessible text analysis software packages, along with training and support. As a result, text-as-data research is becoming mainstream in political science. Scholars are tapping new data sources, they are employing more diverse methods, and they are becoming critical consumers of findings based on those methods. In this article, we first describe the four stages of a typical text-as-data project. We then review recent political science applications and explore one important methodological challenge—topic model instability—in greater detail.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Annual Review of Political Science},
	author = {Wilkerson, John and Casas, Andreu},
	month = may,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {529--544},
	file = {Wilkerson and Casas - 2017 - Large-Scale Computerized Text Analysis in Politica.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/7WN7VM3F/Wilkerson and Casas - 2017 - Large-Scale Computerized Text Analysis in Politica.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lazer_data_2017,
	title = {Data ex {Machina}: {Introduction} to {Big} {Data}},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {0360-0572, 1545-2115},
	shorttitle = {Data ex {Machina}},
	url = {https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053457},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053457},
	abstract = {Social life increasingly occurs in digital environments and continues to be mediated by digital systems. Big data represents the data being generated by the digitization of social life, which we break down into three domains: digital life, digital traces, and digitalized life. We argue that there is enormous potential in using big data to study a variety of phenomena that remain difficult to observe. However, there are some recurring vulnerabilities that should be addressed. We also outline the role institutions must play in clarifying the ethical rules of the road. Finally, we conclude by pointing to a number of nascent but important trends in the use of big data.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Annual Review of Sociology},
	author = {Lazer, David and Radford, Jason},
	month = jul,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {19--39},
	file = {Lazer and Radford - 2017 - Data ex Machina Introduction to Big Data.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/6I4KCLVW/Lazer and Radford - 2017 - Data ex Machina Introduction to Big Data.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bernardi_public_2021,
	title = {The public, the protester, and the bill: do legislative agendas respond to public opinion signals?},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {1350-1763, 1466-4429},
	shorttitle = {The public, the protester, and the bill},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13501763.2020.1729226},
	doi = {10.1080/13501763.2020.1729226},
	abstract = {Legislators adapt their policies and agendas to public priorities. Yet research on dynamic representation usually focuses on the influence of public opinion through surveys leaving out other public opinion signals. We incorporate mobilization of the public through protest. Combining insights from social movement studies and political science, we expect protest not to have a direct effect on attention change in legislative agendas. If anything protest should have an amplification effect on public priorities. Using a new and unique data set covering collective action, public opinion and legislative agendas across almost 40 years in four Western democracies, we confirm the effect of public opinion through surveys but find no support for a direct effect of protest. Protest rarely moves legislators: only in very specific issues will protest interact with public priorities and affect attention change in legislative agendas. Our results have important implications for policy representation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Journal of European Public Policy},
	author = {Bernardi, Luca and Bischof, Daniel and Wouters, Ruud},
	month = feb,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {289--310},
	file = {Bernardi et al. - 2021 - The public, the protester, and the bill do legisl.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/Z5UVG7RP/Bernardi et al. - 2021 - The public, the protester, and the bill do legisl.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bischof_simple_2018,
	title = {Simple politics for the people? {Complexity} in campaign messages and political knowledge: {SIMPLE} {POLITICS} {FOR} {THE} {PEOPLE}?},
	volume = {57},
	issn = {03044130},
	shorttitle = {Simple politics for the people?},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1475-6765.12235},
	doi = {10.1111/1475-6765.12235},
	abstract = {Which parties use simple language in their campaign messages, and do simple campaign messages resonate with voters’ information about parties? This study introduces a novel link between the language applied during election campaigns and citizens’ ability to position parties in the ideological space. To this end, how complexity of campaign messages varies across parties as well as how it affects voters’ knowledge about party positions is investigated. Theoretically, it is suggested that populist parties are more likely to simplify their campaign messages to demarcate themselves from mainstream competitors. In turn, voters should perceive and process simpler campaign messages better and, therefore, have more knowledge about the position of parties that communicate simpler campaign messages. The article presents and validates a measure of complexity and uses it to assess the language of manifestos in Austria and Germany in the period 1945–2013. It shows that political parties, in general, use barely comprehensible language to communicate their policy positions. However, differences between parties exist and support is found for the conjecture about populist parties as they employ significantly less complex language in their manifestos. Second, evidence is found that individuals are better able to place parties in the ideological space if parties use less complex campaign messages. The findings lead to greater understanding of mass-elite linkages during election campaigns and have important consequences for the future analysis of manifesto data.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {European Journal of Political Research},
	author = {Bischof, Daniel and Senninger, Roman},
	month = may,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {473--495},
	file = {Bischof and Senninger - 2018 - Simple politics for the people Complexity in camp.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8UF5BPFD/Bischof and Senninger - 2018 - Simple politics for the people Complexity in camp.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{bishop_pattern_2006,
	address = {New York},
	series = {Information science and statistics},
	title = {Pattern recognition and machine learning},
	isbn = {978-0-387-31073-2},
	language = {en},
	publisher = {Springer},
	author = {Bishop, Christopher M.},
	year = {2006},
	keywords = {Machine learning, Pattern perception},
	file = {Bishop - 2006 - Pattern recognition and machine learning.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8K7CHFJG/Bishop - 2006 - Pattern recognition and machine learning.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{ogrady_careerists_2019,
	title = {Careerists {Versus} {Coal}-{Miners}: {Welfare} {Reforms} and the {Substantive} {Representation} of {Social} {Groups} in the {British} {Labour} {Party}},
	volume = {52},
	issn = {0010-4140, 1552-3829},
	shorttitle = {Careerists {Versus} {Coal}-{Miners}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414018784065},
	doi = {10.1177/0010414018784065},
	abstract = {Many parties have seen declines in working-class legislators and increases in professional career politicians. I argue that career politicians are more likely to adopt policies for strategic political reasons, whereas working-class politicians are more likely to represent the interests of working-class voters. Changes in the representation of these occupational groups matter substantively whenever legislators’ strategic concerns contradict the interests of workingclass voters. Welfare reforms adopted in the 1990s and 2000s by the British Labour Party exhibit this divergence. The two types of politicians held very different policy positions, which I measure using a scaling method applied to all speeches made about welfare in the House of Commons from 1987 to 2007. The results carry over to voting behavior and are robust to alternative explanations, including other characteristics of both MPs and their voters. The changing representation of occupational groups has therefore had substantive policy effects, lowering the political influence of working-class voters.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Comparative Political Studies},
	author = {O’Grady, Tom},
	month = mar,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {544--578},
	file = {O’Grady - 2019 - Careerists Versus Coal-Miners Welfare Reforms and.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/DRTWESVI/O’Grady - 2019 - Careerists Versus Coal-Miners Welfare Reforms and.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{peterson_classification_2018,
	title = {Classification {Accuracy} as a {Substantive} {Quantity} of {Interest}: {Measuring} {Polarization} in {Westminster} {Systems}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	shorttitle = {Classification {Accuracy} as a {Substantive} {Quantity} of {Interest}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198717000390/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/pan.2017.39},
	abstract = {Measuring the polarization of legislators and parties is a key step in understanding how politics develops over time. But in parliamentary systems—where ideological positions estimated from roll calls may not be informative—producing valid estimates is extremely challenging. We suggest a new measurement strategy that makes innovative use of the “accuracy” of machine classifiers, i.e., the number of correct predictions made as a proportion of all predictions. In our case, the “labels” are the party identifications of the members of parliament, predicted from their speeches along with some information on debate subjects. Intuitively, when the learner is able to discriminate members in the two main Westminster parties well, we claim we are in a period of “high” polarization. By contrast, when the classifier has low accuracy—and makes a relatively large number of mistakes in terms of allocating members to parties based on the data—we argue parliament is in an era of “low” polarization. This approach is fast and substantively valid, and we demonstrate its merits with simulations, and by comparing the estimates from 78 years of House of Commons speeches with qualitative and quantitative historical accounts of the same. As a headline finding, we note that contemporary British politics is approximately as polarized as it was in the mid-1960s—that is, in the middle of the “postwar consensus”. More broadly, we show that the technical performance of supervised learning algorithms can be directly informative about substantive matters in social science.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Peterson, Andrew and Spirling, Arthur},
	month = jan,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {120--128},
	file = {Peterson and Spirling - 2018 - Classification Accuracy as a Substantive Quantity .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/GFZG2P3D/Peterson and Spirling - 2018 - Classification Accuracy as a Substantive Quantity .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{yu_classifying_2008,
	title = {Classifying {Party} {Affiliation} from {Political} {Speech}},
	volume = {5},
	issn = {1933-1681, 1933-169X},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19331680802149608},
	doi = {10.1080/19331680802149608},
	abstract = {In this article, we discuss the design of party classifiers for Congressional speech data. We then examine these party classifiers’ person-dependency and time-dependency. We found that party classifiers trained on 2005 House speeches can be generalized to the Senate speeches of the same year, but not vice versa. The classifiers trained on 2005 House speeches performed better on Senate speeches from recent years than on older ones, which indicates the classifiers’ time-dependency. This dependency may be caused by changes in the issue agenda or the ideological composition of Congress.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Journal of Information Technology \& Politics},
	author = {Yu, Bei and Kaufmann, Stefan and Diermeier, Daniel},
	month = jul,
	year = {2008},
	pages = {33--48},
	file = {Yu et al. - 2008 - Classifying Party Affiliation from Political Speec.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/7SYFMLDM/Yu et al. - 2008 - Classifying Party Affiliation from Political Speec.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lucas_computer-assisted_2015-2,
	title = {Computer-{Assisted} {Text} {Analysis} for {Comparative} {Politics}},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198700011736/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1093/pan/mpu019},
	abstract = {Recent advances in research tools for the systematic analysis of textual data are enabling exciting new research throughout the social sciences. For comparative politics, scholars who are often interested in non-English and possibly multilingual textual datasets, these advances may be difficult to access. This article discusses practical issues that arise in the processing, management, translation, and analysis of textual data with a particular focus on how procedures differ across languages. These procedures are combined in two applied examples of automated text analysis using the recently introduced Structural Topic Model. We also show how the model can be used to analyze data that have been translated into a single language via machine translation tools. All the methods we describe here are implemented in open-source software packages available from the authors.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Lucas, Christopher and Nielsen, Richard A. and Roberts, Margaret E. and Stewart, Brandon M. and Storer, Alex and Tingley, Dustin},
	year = {2015},
	pages = {254--277},
	file = {Lucas et al. - 2015 - Computer-Assisted Text Analysis for Comparative Po.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/N5FUJJYS/Lucas et al. - 2015 - Computer-Assisted Text Analysis for Comparative Po.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{benoit_crowd-sourced_2016,
	title = {Crowd-sourced {Text} {Analysis}: {Reproducible} and {Agile} {Production} of {Political} {Data}},
	volume = {110},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	shorttitle = {Crowd-sourced {Text} {Analysis}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055416000058/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0003055416000058},
	abstract = {Empirical social science often relies on data that are not observed in the field, but are transformed into quantitative variables by expert researchers who analyze and interpret qualitative raw sources. While generally considered the most valid way to produce data, this expert-driven process is inherently difficult to replicate or to assess on grounds of reliability. Using crowd-sourcing to distribute text for reading and interpretation by massive numbers of nonexperts, we generate results comparable to those using experts to read and interpret the same texts, but do so far more quickly and flexibly. Crucially, the data we collect can be reproduced and extended transparently, making crowd-sourced datasets intrinsically reproducible. This focuses researchers’ attention on the fundamental scientific objective of specifying reliable and replicable methods for collecting the data needed, rather than on the content of any particular dataset. We also show that our approach works straightforwardly with different types of political text, written in different languages. While findings reported here concern text analysis, they have far-reaching implications for expert-generated data in the social sciences.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {Benoit, Kenneth and Conway, Drew and Lauderdale, Benjamin E. and Laver, Michael and Mikhaylov, Slava},
	month = may,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {278--295},
	file = {Benoit et al. - 2016 - Crowd-sourced Text Analysis Reproducible and Agil.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/7365EDPD/Benoit et al. - 2016 - Crowd-sourced Text Analysis Reproducible and Agil.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{denny_text_2018,
	title = {Text {Preprocessing} {For} {Unsupervised} {Learning}: {Why} {It} {Matters}, {When} {It} {Misleads}, {And} {What} {To} {Do} {About} {It}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	shorttitle = {Text {Preprocessing} {For} {Unsupervised} {Learning}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198717000444/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/pan.2017.44},
	abstract = {Despite the popularity of unsupervised techniques for political science text-as-data research, the importance and implications of preprocessing decisions in this domain have received scant systematic attention. Yet, as we show, such decisions have profound effects on the results of real models for real data. We argue that substantive theory is typically too vague to be of use for feature selection, and that the supervised literature is not necessarily a helpful source of advice. To aid researchers working in unsupervised settings, we introduce a statistical procedure and software that examines the sensitivity of findings under alternate preprocessing regimes. This approach complements a researcher’s substantive understanding of a problem by providing a characterization of the variability changes in preprocessing choices may induce when analyzing a particular dataset. In making scholars aware of the degree to which their results are likely to be sensitive to their preprocessing decisions, it aids replication efforts.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Denny, Matthew J. and Spirling, Arthur},
	month = apr,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {168--189},
	file = {Denny and Spirling - 2018 - Text Preprocessing For Unsupervised Learning Why .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/RGBD7K7H/Denny and Spirling - 2018 - Text Preprocessing For Unsupervised Learning Why .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{dimaggio_exploiting_2013,
	title = {Exploiting affinities between topic modeling and the sociological perspective on culture: {Application} to newspaper coverage of {U}.{S}. government arts funding},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0304422X},
	shorttitle = {Exploiting affinities between topic modeling and the sociological perspective on culture},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304422X13000661},
	doi = {10.1016/j.poetic.2013.08.004},
	abstract = {Topic modeling provides a valuable method for identifying the linguistic contexts that surround social institutions or policy domains. This article uses Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) to analyze how one such policy domain, government assistance to artists and arts organizations, was framed in almost 8000 articles. These comprised all articles that referred to government support for the arts in the U.S. published in five U.S. newspapers between 1986 and 1997—a period during which such assistance, once noncontroversial, became a focus of contention. We illustrate the strengths of topic modeling as a means of analyzing large text corpora, discuss the proper choice of models and interpretation of model results, describe means of validating topic-model solutions, and demonstrate the use of topic models in combination with other statistical tools to estimate differences between newspapers in the prevalence of different frames. Throughout, we emphasize affinities between the topic-modeling approach and such central concepts in the study of culture as framing, polysemy, heteroglossia, and the relationality of meaning.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Poetics},
	author = {DiMaggio, Paul and Nag, Manish and Blei, David},
	month = dec,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {570--606},
	file = {DiMaggio et al. - 2013 - Exploiting affinities between topic modeling and t.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/A89ILDX5/DiMaggio et al. - 2013 - Exploiting affinities between topic modeling and t.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bollen_historical_2021,
	title = {Historical language records reveal a surge of cognitive distortions in recent decades},
	volume = {118},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.2102061118},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.2102061118},
	abstract = {Individuals with depression are prone to maladaptive patterns of thinking, known as cognitive distortions, whereby they think about themselves, the world, and the future in overly negative and inaccurate ways. These distortions are associated with marked changes in an individual’s mood, behavior, and language. We hypothesize that societies can undergo similar changes in their collective psychology that are reflected in historical records of language use. Here, we investigate the prevalence of textual markers of cognitive distortions in over 14 million books for the past 125 y and observe a surge of their prevalence since the 1980s, to levels exceeding those of the Great Depression and both World Wars. This pattern does not seem to be driven by changes in word meaning, publishing and writing standards, or the Google Books sample. Our results suggest a recent societal shift toward language associated with cognitive distortions and internalizing disorders.},
	language = {en},
	number = {30},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Bollen, Johan and ten Thij, Marijn and Breithaupt, Fritz and Barron, Alexander T. J. and Rutter, Lauren A. and Lorenzo-Luaces, Lorenzo and Scheffer, Marten},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {e2102061118},
	file = {Bollen et al. - 2021 - Historical language records reveal a surge of cogn.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AA9SZ9NY/Bollen et al. - 2021 - Historical language records reveal a surge of cogn.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{scheffer_rise_2021,
	title = {The rise and fall of rationality in language},
	volume = {118},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.2107848118},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.2107848118},
	abstract = {The surge of post-truth political argumentation suggests that we are living in a special historical period when it comes to the balance between emotion and reasoning. To explore if this is indeed the case, we analyze language in millions of books covering the period from 1850 to 2019 represented in Google nGram data. We show that the use of words associated with rationality, such as “determine” and “conclusion,” rose systematically after 1850, while words related to human experience such as “feel” and “believe” declined. This pattern reversed over the past decades, paralleled by a shift from a collectivistic to an individualistic focus as reflected, among other things, by the ratio of singular to plural pronouns such as “I”/”we” and “he”/”they.” Interpreting this synchronous sea change in book language remains challenging. However, as we show, the nature of this reversal occurs in fiction as well as nonfiction. Moreover, the pattern of change in the ratio between sentiment and rationality flag words since 1850 also occurs in
              New York Times
              articles, suggesting that it is not an artifact of the book corpora we analyzed. Finally, we show that word trends in books parallel trends in corresponding Google search terms, supporting the idea that changes in book language do in part reflect changes in interest. All in all, our results suggest that over the past decades, there has been a marked shift in public interest from the collective to the individual, and from rationality toward emotion.},
	language = {en},
	number = {51},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Scheffer, Marten and van de Leemput, Ingrid and Weinans, Els and Bollen, Johan},
	month = dec,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {e2107848118},
	file = {Scheffer et al. - 2021 - The rise and fall of rationality in language.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/XARXG8F3/Scheffer et al. - 2021 - The rise and fall of rationality in language.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bollen_reply_2021,
	title = {Reply to {Schmidt} et al.: {A} robust surge of cognitive distortions in historical language},
	volume = {118},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	shorttitle = {Reply to {Schmidt} et al.},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.2115842118},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.2115842118},
	language = {en},
	number = {45},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Bollen, Johan and ten Thij, Marijn and Breithaupt, Fritz and Barron, Alexander T. J. and Rutter, Lauren A. and Lorenzo-Luaces, Lorenzo and Scheffer, Marten},
	month = nov,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {e2115842118},
	file = {Bollen et al. - 2021 - Reply to Schmidt et al. A robust surge of cogniti.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/T5KRHKEU/Bollen et al. - 2021 - Reply to Schmidt et al. A robust surge of cogniti.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{frey_clustering_2007,
	title = {Clustering by {Passing} {Messages} {Between} {Data} {Points}},
	volume = {315},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1136800},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1136800},
	language = {en},
	number = {5814},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Frey, Brendan J. and Dueck, Delbert},
	month = feb,
	year = {2007},
	pages = {972--976},
	file = {Frey and Dueck - 2007 - Clustering by Passing Messages Between Data Points.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/TAFBE52G/Frey and Dueck - 2007 - Clustering by Passing Messages Between Data Points.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{tenenbaum_how_2011,
	title = {How to {Grow} a {Mind}: {Statistics}, {Structure}, and {Abstraction}},
	volume = {331},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	shorttitle = {How to {Grow} a {Mind}},
	url = {https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1192788},
	doi = {10.1126/science.1192788},
	language = {en},
	number = {6022},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Tenenbaum, Joshua B. and Kemp, Charles and Griffiths, Thomas L. and Goodman, Noah D.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {1279--1285},
	file = {Tenenbaum et al. - 2011 - How to Grow a Mind Statistics, Structure, and Abs.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/SK49YTWQ/Tenenbaum et al. - 2011 - How to Grow a Mind Statistics, Structure, and Abs.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{manning_introduction_2009,
	title = {Introduction to {Information} {Retrieval}},
	language = {en},
	author = {Manning, Christopher D and Raghavan, Prabhakar and Schütze, Hinrich},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {569},
	file = {Manning et al. - 2009 - Introduction to Information Retrieval.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/KIRQBK3F/Manning et al. - 2009 - Introduction to Information Retrieval.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{proksch_multilingual_2019,
	title = {Multilingual {Sentiment} {Analysis}: {A} {New} {Approach} to {Measuring} {Conflict} in {Legislative} {Speeches}: {Multilingual} {Sentiment} {Analysis}},
	volume = {44},
	issn = {03629805},
	shorttitle = {Multilingual {Sentiment} {Analysis}},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/lsq.12218},
	doi = {10.1111/lsq.12218},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Legislative Studies Quarterly},
	author = {Proksch, Sven-Oliver and Lowe, Will and Wäckerle, Jens and Soroka, Stuart},
	month = feb,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {97--131},
	file = {Proksch et al. - 2019 - Multilingual Sentiment Analysis A New Approach to.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/A9JHSBQN/Proksch et al. - 2019 - Multilingual Sentiment Analysis A New Approach to.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{witten_managing_1999,
	address = {San Francisco, Calif},
	edition = {2nd ed},
	series = {The {Morgan} {Kaufmann} series in multimedia information and systems},
	title = {Managing gigabytes: compressing and indexing documents and images},
	isbn = {978-1-55860-570-1},
	shorttitle = {Managing gigabytes},
	language = {en},
	publisher = {Morgan Kaufmann Publishers},
	author = {Witten, I. H. and Moffat, Alistair and Bell, Timothy C.},
	year = {1999},
	keywords = {Data compression (Telecommunication), Digital techniques, Document imaging systems, Image processing, Text processing (Computer science)},
	file = {Witten et al. - 1999 - Managing gigabytes compressing and indexing docum.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZQCJARH4/Witten et al. - 1999 - Managing gigabytes compressing and indexing docum.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{muller_media_2020,
	title = {Media {Coverage} of {Campaign} {Promises} {Throughout} the {Electoral} {Cycle}},
	volume = {37},
	issn = {1058-4609, 1091-7675},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10584609.2020.1744779},
	doi = {10.1080/10584609.2020.1744779},
	abstract = {Previous studies conclude that governments fulfill a large share of their campaign pledges. However, only a minority of voters believe that politicians try to keep their promises, and many voters struggle to recall the fulfillment or breaking of salient campaign pledges accurately. I argue that this disparity between the public perception and empirical evidence is influenced by the information voters receive throughout the electoral cycle. I expect that the media extensively inform readers about political promises. In addition, I posit that news outlets focus more on broken than on fulfilled promises and that the focus on broken promises has increased over time. I find strong support for these expectations based on a new text corpus of over 430,000 statements on political commitments published between 1979 and 2017 in 22 newspapers during 33 electoral cycles in Australia, Canada, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. Newspapers inform voters regularly about announced, broken, and fulfilled promises. Yet, across the four countries, newspapers report at least twice as much on broken than on fulfilled promises. Moreover, this negativity bias in reports on political promises has increased substantively. The results have implications for studying campaign promises, negative information in mass media, and the linkages between voters and parties.},
	language = {en},
	number = {5},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Communication},
	author = {Müller, Stefan},
	month = sep,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {696--718},
	file = {Müller - 2020 - Media Coverage of Campaign Promises Throughout the.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/IPIGLTX2/Müller - 2020 - Media Coverage of Campaign Promises Throughout the.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{padmanabhan_multi-perspective_2021,
	address = {Virtual Event USA},
	title = {A multi-perspective view of {Internet} censorship in {Myanmar}},
	isbn = {978-1-4503-8640-1},
	url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3473604.3474562},
	doi = {10.1145/3473604.3474562},
	abstract = {In the wake of a military coup in February 2021, Myanmar experienced unprecedented levels of Internet censorship. Beginning with haphazard blocking of social media and intermittent Internet connectivity outages, controls proceeded to stricter blocking of websites, the shutdown of cellular data in several networks, and nearly complete disconnection from the Internet every night. In this study, we use diverse datasets and measurement methods to offer a holistic view into the censorship events in Myanmar that occurred since the coup and show how Internet censorship evolved during this time.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the {ACM} {SIGCOMM} 2021 {Workshop} on {Free} and {Open} {Communications} on the {Internet}},
	publisher = {ACM},
	author = {Padmanabhan, Ramakrishna and Filastò, Arturo and Xynou, Maria and Raman, Ram Sundara and Middleton, Kennedy and Zhang, Mingwei and Madory, Doug and Roberts, Molly and Dainotti, Alberto},
	month = aug,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {27--36},
	file = {Padmanabhan et al. - 2021 - A multi-perspective view of Internet censorship in.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/INABJH85/Padmanabhan et al. - 2021 - A multi-perspective view of Internet censorship in.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{watanabe_newsmap_2018,
	title = {Newsmap: {A} semi-supervised approach to geographical news classification},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {2167-0811, 2167-082X},
	shorttitle = {Newsmap},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21670811.2017.1293487},
	doi = {10.1080/21670811.2017.1293487},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Digital Journalism},
	author = {Watanabe, Kohei},
	month = mar,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {294--309},
	file = {Watanabe - 2018 - Newsmap A semi-supervised approach to geographica.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/A79NJ5SJ/Watanabe - 2018 - Newsmap A semi-supervised approach to geographica.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{catalinac_positioning_2018,
	title = {Positioning under {Alternative} {Electoral} {Systems}: {Evidence} from {Japanese} {Candidate} {Election} {Manifestos}},
	volume = {112},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	shorttitle = {Positioning under {Alternative} {Electoral} {Systems}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055417000399/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0003055417000399},
	abstract = {We study a core question of interest in political science: Do candidates position themselves differently under different electoral systems and is their positioning in line with the expectations of spatial theories? We use validated estimates of candidate ideological positions derived from quantitative scaling of 7,497 Japanese-language election manifestos written by the near universe of candidates who competed in the eight House of Representatives elections held on either side of Japan’s 1994 electoral reform. Leveraging variation before and after Japan’s electoral reform, as well as within each electoral system, we find that candidates converge in single-member districts and diverge in multimember districts, and converge on copartisans when not faced with intraparty competition and diverge when they do. Our study helps to clarify debates about the effects of electoral systems on ideological polarization and party cohesion in Japan and more generally.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {Catalinac, Amy},
	month = feb,
	year = {2018},
	pages = {31--48},
	file = {Catalinac - 2018 - Positioning under Alternative Electoral Systems E.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JWCJEDX9/Catalinac - 2018 - Positioning under Alternative Electoral Systems E.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{peng_quantitative_2002,
	title = {Quantitative {Analysis} of {Literary} {Styles}},
	volume = {56},
	issn = {0003-1305, 1537-2731},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1198/000313002100},
	doi = {10.1198/000313002100},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {The American Statistician},
	author = {Peng, Roger D and Hengartner, Nicolas W},
	month = aug,
	year = {2002},
	pages = {175--185},
	file = {Peng and Hengartner - 2002 - Quantitative Analysis of Literary Styles.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5C8VTNKS/Peng and Hengartner - 2002 - Quantitative Analysis of Literary Styles.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{dorazio_separating_2014,
	title = {Separating the {Wheat} from the {Chaff}: {Applications} of {Automated} {Document} {Classification} {Using} {Support} {Vector} {Machines}},
	volume = {22},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	shorttitle = {Separating the {Wheat} from the {Chaff}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S104719870001370X/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1093/pan/mpt030},
	abstract = {Due in large part to the proliferation of digitized text, much of it available for little or no cost from the Internet, political science research has experienced a substantial increase in the number of data sets and large-
              n
              research initiatives. As the ability to collect detailed information on events of interest expands, so does the need to efficiently sort through the volumes of available information. Automated document classification presents a particularly attractive methodology for accomplishing this task. It is efficient, widely applicable to a variety of data collection efforts, and considerably flexible in tailoring its application for specific research needs. This article offers a holistic review of the application of automated document classification for data collection in political science research by discussing the process in its entirety. We argue that the application of a two-stage support vector machine (SVM) classification process offers advantages over other well-known alternatives, due to the nature of SVMs being a discriminative classifier and having the ability to effectively address two primary attributes of textual data: high dimensionality and extreme sparseness. Evidence for this claim is presented through a discussion of the efficiency gains derived from using automated document classification on the Militarized Interstate Dispute 4 (MID4) data collection project.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {D'Orazio, Vito and Landis, Steven T. and Palmer, Glenn and Schrodt, Philip},
	year = {2014},
	pages = {224--242},
	file = {D'Orazio et al. - 2014 - Separating the Wheat from the Chaff Applications .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JYIT7LEU/D'Orazio et al. - 2014 - Separating the Wheat from the Chaff Applications .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{castanho_silva_politicians_2021,
	title = {Politicians unleashed? {Political} communication on {Twitter} and in parliament in {Western} {Europe}},
	issn = {2049-8470, 2049-8489},
	shorttitle = {Politicians unleashed?},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S2049847021000364/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/psrm.2021.36},
	abstract = {Abstract
            Twitter is a prominent communication tool for politicians with two potential uses: as a “substitute” channel to circumvent constraints from other political arenas, or as an “amplifier” that reinforces party messages. Using a novel dataset containing tweets and parliamentary speeches by members of parliament (MPs) in seven countries, we estimate politicians’ positions and intra-party dissent on European integration. We find that MPs’ sentiment about Europe on Twitter is a valid measure of their party's position, while also uncovering intra-party disagreements. Our results suggest that most MPs amplify the partisan message, but MPs who participate less in parliamentary debate tend to have larger differences with their party on Twitter. Social media thus can free politicians from their party's grip.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Science Research and Methods},
	author = {Castanho Silva, Bruno and Proksch, Sven-Oliver},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {1--17},
	file = {Castanho Silva and Proksch - 2021 - Politicians unleashed Political communication on .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/9T6Q6RGQ/Castanho Silva and Proksch - 2021 - Politicians unleashed Political communication on .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{grimmer_text_2013-1,
	title = {Text as {Data}: {The} {Promise} and {Pitfalls} of {Automatic} {Content} {Analysis} {Methods} for {Political} {Texts}},
	volume = {21},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	shorttitle = {Text as {Data}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198700013401/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1093/pan/mps028},
	abstract = {Politics and political conflict often occur in the written and spoken word. Scholars have long recognized this, but the massive costs of analyzing even moderately sized collections of texts have hindered their use in political science research. Here lies the promise of automated text analysis: it substantially reduces the costs of analyzing large collections of text. We provide a guide to this exciting new area of research and show how, in many instances, the methods have already obtained part of their promise. But there are pitfalls to using automated methods—they are no substitute for careful thought and close reading and require extensive and problem-specific validation. We survey a wide range of new methods, provide guidance on how to validate the output of the models, and clarify misconceptions and errors in the literature. To conclude, we argue that for automated text methods to become a standard tool for political scientists, methodologists must contribute new methods and new methods of validation.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Grimmer, Justin and Stewart, Brandon M.},
	year = {2013},
	pages = {267--297},
	file = {Grimmer and Stewart - 2013 - Text as Data The Promise and Pitfalls of Automati.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/EQPG7ZQJ/Grimmer and Stewart - 2013 - Text as Data The Promise and Pitfalls of Automati.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{hovy_text_2021,
	edition = {1},
	title = {Text {Analysis} in {Python} for {Social} {Scientists}: {Discovery} and {Exploration}},
	isbn = {978-1-108-87335-2 978-1-108-81982-4},
	shorttitle = {Text {Analysis} in {Python} for {Social} {Scientists}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781108873352/type/element},
	abstract = {Text is everywhere, and it is a fantastic resource for social scientists. However, because it is so abundant, and because language is so variable, it is often difficult to extract the information we want. A whole subfield of AI is concerned with text analysis (natural language processing). Many of the basic analysis methods developed are now readily available as Python implementations. This Element will teach you when to use which method, the mathematical background of how it works, and the Python code to implement it.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Hovy, Dirk},
	month = jan,
	year = {2021},
	doi = {10.1017/9781108873352},
	file = {Hovy - 2021 - Text Analysis in Python for Social Scientists Dis.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5NWKNMFF/Hovy - 2021 - Text Analysis in Python for Social Scientists Dis.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lowe_understanding_2008,
	title = {Understanding {Wordscores}},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S104719870000228X/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1093/pan/mpn004},
	abstract = {Wordscores is a widely used procedure for inferring policy positions, or scores, for new documents on the basis of scores for words derived from documents with known scores. It is computationally straightforward, requires no distributional assumptions, but has unresolved practical and theoretical problems. In applications, estimated document scores are on the wrong scale and the theoretical development does not specify a statistical model, so it is unclear what assumptions the method makes about political text and how to tell whether they fit particular text analysis applications. The first part of the paper demonstrates that badly scaled document score estimates reflect deeper problems with the method. The second part shows how to understand Wordscores as an approximation to correspondence analysis which itself approximates a statistical ideal point model for words. Problems with the method are identified with the conditions under which these layers of approximation fail to ensure consistent and unbiased estimation of the parameters of the ideal point model.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Lowe, Will},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {356--371},
	file = {Lowe - 2008 - Understanding Wordscores.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/YTVKBEN8/Lowe - 2008 - Understanding Wordscores.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hopkins_method_2010,
	title = {A {Method} of {Automated} {Nonparametric} {Content} {Analysis} for {Social} {Science}},
	volume = {54},
	issn = {00925853, 15405907},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00428.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00428.x},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Hopkins, Daniel J. and King, Gary},
	month = jan,
	year = {2010},
	pages = {229--247},
	file = {Hopkins and King - 2010 - A Method of Automated Nonparametric Content Analys.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/XQ78YABZ/Hopkins and King - 2010 - A Method of Automated Nonparametric Content Analys.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@techreport{ziblatt_wealth_2020-1,
	type = {preprint},
	title = {Wealth of {Tongues}: {Why} {Peripheral} {Regions} {Vote} for the {Radical} {Right} in {Germany}},
	shorttitle = {Wealth of {Tongues}},
	url = {https://osf.io/syr84},
	abstract = {Why do voters for the radical right appear to cluster in rural communities? This paper argues that what is frequently classified as the “rural” bases of radical right support in previous research is in part the result of something entirely di erent: communities that were in the historical “periphery” in the center-periphery conflicts of modern nation-state formation. Inspired by a classic state-building literature that emphasizes the prevalence of a “wealth of tongues” (Weber )—or nonstandard linguistic dialects in a region—as a definition of the periphery, we use data from more than , geo-coded responses in a linguistic survey in Germany to show that voters from historically peripheral geographic communities are more likely to vote for the radical right today.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	institution = {SocArXiv},
	author = {Ziblatt, Daniel and Hilbig, Hanno and Bischof, Daniel},
	month = apr,
	year = {2020},
	doi = {10.31235/osf.io/syr84},
	file = {Ziblatt et al. - 2020 - Wealth of Tongues Why Peripheral Regions Vote for.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/FZFAHJ62/Ziblatt et al. - 2020 - Wealth of Tongues Why Peripheral Regions Vote for.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{schmidt_uncontrolled_2021,
	title = {Uncontrolled corpus composition drives an apparent surge in cognitive distortions},
	volume = {118},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.2115010118},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.2115010118},
	language = {en},
	number = {45},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Schmidt, Benjamin and Piantadosi, Steven T. and Mahowald, Kyle},
	month = nov,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {e2115010118},
	file = {Schmidt et al. - 2021 - Uncontrolled corpus composition drives an apparent.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AR6FQRZ8/Schmidt et al. - 2021 - Uncontrolled corpus composition drives an apparent.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hills_historical_2019,
	title = {Historical analysis of national subjective wellbeing using millions of digitized books},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2397-3374},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-019-0750-z},
	doi = {10.1038/s41562-019-0750-z},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Nature Human Behaviour},
	author = {Hills, Thomas T. and Proto, Eugenio and Sgroi, Daniel and Seresinhe, Chanuki Illushka},
	month = dec,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {1271--1275},
	file = {Hills et al. - 2019 - Historical analysis of national subjective wellbei.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZCS8JEQP/Hills et al. - 2019 - Historical analysis of national subjective wellbei.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{young_affective_2012,
	title = {Affective {News}: {The} {Automated} {Coding} of {Sentiment} in {Political} {Texts}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {1058-4609, 1091-7675},
	shorttitle = {Affective {News}},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10584609.2012.671234},
	doi = {10.1080/10584609.2012.671234},
	abstract = {An increasing number of studies in political communication focus on the “sentiment” or “tone” of news content, political speeches, or advertisements. This growing interest in measuring sentiment coincides with a dramatic increase in the volume of digitized information. Computer automation has a great deal of potential in this new media environment. The objective here is to outline and validate a new automated measurement instrument for sentiment analysis in political texts. Our instrument uses a dictionary-based approach consisting of a simple word count of the frequency of keywords in a text from a predefined dictionary. The design of the freely available Lexicoder Sentiment Dictionary (LSD) is discussed in detail here. The dictionary is tested against a body of human-coded news content, and the resulting codes are also compared to results from nine existing content-analytic dictionaries. Analyses suggest that the LSD produces results that are more systematically related to human coding than are results based on the other available dictionaries. The LSD is thus a useful starting point for a revived discussion about dictionary construction and validation in sentiment analysis for political communication.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-17},
	journal = {Political Communication},
	author = {Young, Lori and Soroka, Stuart},
	month = apr,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {205--231},
	file = {Young and Soroka - 2012 - Affective News The Automated Coding of Sentiment .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/RIE8R3U7/Young and Soroka - 2012 - Affective News The Automated Coding of Sentiment .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{jurafsky_speech_2021,
	address = {New Jersey},
	edition = {3},
	title = {Speech and {Language} {Processing}: {An} {Introduction} to {Natural} {Language} {Processing}, {Computational} {Linguistics}, and {Speech} {Recognition}},
	url = {https://web.stanford.edu/~jurafsky/slp3/},
	publisher = {Prentice-Hall, Inc.},
	author = {Jurafsky, Daniel and Martin, James H},
	year = {2021},
}

@inproceedings{chang_reading_2009,
	address = {Red Hook, NY, USA},
	series = {{NIPS}'09},
	title = {Reading {Tea} {Leaves}: {How} {Humans} {Interpret} {Topic} {Models}},
	isbn = {978-1-61567-911-9},
	abstract = {Probabilistic topic models are a popular tool for the unsupervised analysis of text, providing both a predictive model of future text and a latent topic representation of the corpus. Practitioners typically assume that the latent space is semantically meaningful. It is used to check models, summarize the corpus, and guide exploration of its contents. However, whether the latent space is interpretable is in need of quantitative evaluation. In this paper, we present new quantitative methods for measuring semantic meaning in inferred topics. We back these measures with large-scale user studies, showing that they capture aspects of the model that are undetected by previous measures of model quality based on held-out likelihood. Surprisingly, topic models which perform better on held-out likelihood may infer less semantically meaningful topics.},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 22nd {International} {Conference} on {Neural} {Information} {Processing} {Systems}},
	publisher = {Curran Associates Inc.},
	author = {Chang, Jonathan and Boyd-Graber, Jordan and Gerrish, Sean and Wang, Chong and Blei, David M.},
	year = {2009},
	note = {event-place: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada},
	pages = {288--296},
}

@article{king_computer-assisted_2017,
	title = {Computer-{Assisted} {Keyword} and {Document} {Set} {Discovery} from {Unstructured} {Text}},
	volume = {61},
	issn = {1540-5907},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ajps.12291},
	doi = {10.1111/ajps.12291},
	abstract = {The (unheralded) first step in many applications of automated text analysis involves selecting keywords to choose documents from a large text corpus for further study. Although all substantive results depend on this choice, researchers usually pick keywords in ad hoc ways that are far from optimal and usually biased. Most seem to think that keyword selection is easy, since they do Google searches every day, but we demonstrate that humans perform exceedingly poorly at this basic task. We offer a better approach, one that also can help with following conversations where participants rapidly innovate language to evade authorities, seek political advantage, or express creativity; generic web searching; eDiscovery; look-alike modeling; industry and intelligence analysis; and sentiment and topic analysis. We develop a computer-assisted (as opposed to fully automated or human-only) statistical approach that suggests keywords from available text without needing structured data as inputs. This framing poses the statistical problem in a new way, which leads to a widely applicable algorithm. Our specific approach is based on training classifiers, extracting information from (rather than correcting) their mistakes, and summarizing results with easy-to-understand Boolean search strings. We illustrate how the technique works with analyses of English texts about the Boston Marathon bombings, Chinese social media posts designed to evade censorship, and others.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {American Journal of Political Science},
	author = {King, Gary and Lam, Patrick and Roberts, Margaret E.},
	year = {2017},
	note = {\_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/ajps.12291},
	pages = {971--988},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JYUY2DNP/ajps.html:text/html;Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CGNVPAI5/King et al. - 2017 - Computer-Assisted Keyword and Document Set Discove.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{pechenick_characterizing_2015,
	title = {Characterizing the {Google} {Books} {Corpus}: {Strong} {Limits} to {Inferences} of {Socio}-{Cultural} and {Linguistic} {Evolution}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1932-6203},
	shorttitle = {Characterizing the {Google} {Books} {Corpus}},
	url = {https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137041},
	doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0137041},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {PLOS ONE},
	author = {Pechenick, Eitan Adam and Danforth, Christopher M. and Dodds, Peter Sheridan},
	editor = {Barrat, Alain},
	month = oct,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {e0137041},
	file = {Pechenick et al. - 2015 - Characterizing the Google Books Corpus Strong Lim.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/G8TDQRZX/Pechenick et al. - 2015 - Characterizing the Google Books Corpus Strong Lim.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{krippendorff_content_2004,
	address = {London},
	title = {Content {Analysis}: {An} {Introduction} to its {Methodology}},
	publisher = {SAGE Publications Ltd},
	author = {Krippendorff, Klaus},
	year = {2004},
}

@article{ying_topics_2021,
	title = {Topics, {Concepts}, and {Measurement}: {A} {Crowdsourced} {Procedure} for {Validating} {Topics} as {Measures}},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	shorttitle = {Topics, {Concepts}, and {Measurement}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198721000334/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/pan.2021.33},
	abstract = {Topic models, as developed in computer science, are e ective tools for exploring and summarizing large document collections. When applied in social science research, however, they are commonly used for measurement, a task that requires careful validation to ensure that the model outputs actually capture the desired concept of interest. In this paper, we review current practices for topic validation in the field and show that extensive model validation is increasingly rare, or at least not systematically reported in papers and appendices. To supplement current practices, we refine an existing crowd-sourcing method by Chang and coauthors for validating topic quality and go on to create new procedures for validating conceptual labels provided by the researcher. We illustrate our method with an analysis of Facebook posts by U.S. Senators and provide so ware and guidance for researchers wishing to validate their own topic models. While tailored, case-specific validation exercises will always be best, we aim to improve standard practices by providing a general-purpose tool to validate topics as measures.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Ying, Luwei and Montgomery, Jacob M. and Stewart, Brandon M.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {1--20},
	file = {Ying et al. - 2021 - Topics, Concepts, and Measurement A Crowdsourced .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/3BTH75XC/Ying et al. - 2021 - Topics, Concepts, and Measurement A Crowdsourced .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{osnabrugge_cross-domain_2021,
	title = {Cross-{Domain} {Topic} {Classification} for {Political} {Texts}},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1047198721000371/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/pan.2021.37},
	abstract = {We introduce and assess the use of supervised learning in cross-domain topic classification. In this approach, an algorithm learns to classify topics in a labeled source corpus and then extrapolates topics in an unlabeled target corpus from another domain. The ability to use existing training data makes this method significantly more efficient than within-domain supervised learning. It also has three advantages over unsupervised topic models: the method can be more specifically targeted to a research question and the resulting topics are easier to validate and interpret. We demonstrate the method using the case of labeled party platforms (source corpus) and unlabeled parliamentary speeches (target corpus). In addition to the standard withindomain error metrics, we further validate the cross-domain performance by labeling a subset of target-corpus documents. We find that the classifier accurately assigns topics in the parliamentary speeches, although accuracy varies substantially by topic. We also propose tools diagnosing cross-domain classification. To illustrate the usefulness of the method, we present two case studies on how electoral rules and the gender of parliamentarians influence the choice of speech topics.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Osnabrügge, Moritz and Ash, Elliott and Morelli, Massimo},
	month = oct,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {1--22},
	file = {Osnabrügge et al. - 2021 - Cross-Domain Topic Classification for Political Te.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/IAVF6GP4/Osnabrügge et al. - 2021 - Cross-Domain Topic Classification for Political Te.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{alshaabi_storywrangler_2021,
	title = {Storywrangler: {A} massive exploratorium for sociolinguistic, cultural, socioeconomic, and political timelines using {Twitter}},
	volume = {7},
	issn = {2375-2548},
	shorttitle = {Storywrangler},
	url = {https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abe6534},
	doi = {10.1126/sciadv.abe6534},
	language = {en},
	number = {29},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {Science Advances},
	author = {Alshaabi, Thayer and Adams, Jane L. and Arnold, Michael V. and Minot, Joshua R. and Dewhurst, David R. and Reagan, Andrew J. and Danforth, Christopher M. and Dodds, Peter Sheridan},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {eabe6534},
	file = {Alshaabi et al. - 2021 - Storywrangler A massive exploratorium for socioli.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZPJJX3B9/Alshaabi et al. - 2021 - Storywrangler A massive exploratorium for socioli.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{siegel_tweeting_2021,
	title = {Tweeting {Beyond} {Tahrir}: {Ideological} {Diversity} and {Political} {Intolerance} in {Egyptian} {Twitter} {Networks}},
	volume = {73},
	issn = {0043-8871, 1086-3338},
	shorttitle = {Tweeting {Beyond} {Tahrir}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0043887120000295/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0043887120000295},
	abstract = {Do online social networks affect political tolerance in the highly polarized climate of postcoup Egypt? Taking advantage of the real-time networked structure of Twitter data, the authors find that not only is greater network diversity associated with lower levels of intolerance, but also that longer exposure to a diverse network is linked to less expression of intolerance over time. The authors find that this relationship persists in both elite and non-elite diverse networks. Exploring the mechanisms by which network diversity might affect tolerance, the authors offer suggestive evidence that social norms in online networks may shape individuals’ propensity to publicly express intolerant attitudes. The findings contribute to the political tolerance literature and enrich the ongoing debate over the relationship between online echo chambers and political attitudes and behavior by providing new insights from a repressive authoritarian context.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {World Politics},
	author = {Siegel, Alexandra A. and Nagler, Jonathan and Bonneau, Richard and Tucker, Joshua A.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {243--274},
	file = {Siegel et al. - 2021 - Tweeting Beyond Tahrir Ideological Diversity and .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/XD5FIWQR/Siegel et al. - 2021 - Tweeting Beyond Tahrir Ideological Diversity and .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{siegel_trumping_2021,
	title = {Trumping {Hate} on {Twitter}? {Online} {Hate} {Speech} in the 2016 {U}.{S}. {Election} {Campaign} and its {Aftermath}},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {1554-0626, 1554-0634},
	shorttitle = {Trumping {Hate} on {Twitter}?},
	url = {http://www.nowpublishers.com/article/Details/QJPS-19045},
	doi = {10.1561/100.00019045},
	abstract = {To what extent did online hate speech and white nationalist rhetoric on Twitter increase over the course of Donald Trump’s 2016 presidential election campaign and its aftermath? The prevailing narrative suggests that Trump’s political rise—and his unexpected victory—lent legitimacy to and popularized bigoted rhetoric that was once relegated to the dark corners of the Internet. However, our analysis of over 750 million tweets related to the election, in addition to almost 400 million tweets from a random sample of American Twitter users, provides systematic evidence that hate speech did not increase on Twitter over this period. Using both machine-learning-augmented dictionary-based methods and a novel classification approach leveraging data from Reddit communities associated with the alt-right movement, we observe no persistent increase in hate speech or white nationalist language either over the course of the campaign or in the aftermath of Trump’s election. While key campaign events and policy announcements produced brief spikes in hateful language, these bursts quickly dissipated. Overall we find no empirical support for the proposition that Trump’s divisive campaign or election increased hate speech on Twitter.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {Quarterly Journal of Political Science},
	author = {Siegel, Alexandra A. and Nikitin, Evgenii and Barberá, Pablo and Sterling, Joanna and Pullen, Bethany and Bonneau, Richard and Nagler, Jonathan and Tucker, Joshua A.},
	year = {2021},
	pages = {71--104},
	file = {Siegel et al. - 2021 - Trumping Hate on Twitter Online Hate Speech in th.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5F7DSCB2/Siegel et al. - 2021 - Trumping Hate on Twitter Online Hate Speech in th.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kwak_systematic_2020,
	title = {A {Systematic} {Media} {Frame} {Analysis} of 1.5 {Million} {New} {York} {Times} {Articles} from 2000 to 2017},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2005.01803},
	abstract = {Framing is an indispensable narrative device for news media because even the same facts may lead to conflicting understandings if deliberate framing is employed. Therefore, identifying media framing is a crucial step to understanding how news media influence the public. Framing is, however, difficult to operationalize and detect, and thus traditional media framing studies had to rely on manual annotation, which is challenging to scale up to massive news datasets. Here, by developing a media frame classifier that achieves state-of-the-art performance, we systematically analyze the media frames of 1.5 million New York Times articles published from 2000 to 2017. By examining the ebb and flow of media frames over almost two decades, we show that short-term frame abundance fluctuation closely corresponds to major events, while there also exist several long-term trends, such as the gradually increasing prevalence of the “Cultural identity” frame. By examining specific topics and sentiments, we identify characteristics and dynamics of each frame. Finally, as a case study, we delve into the framing of mass shootings, revealing three major framing patterns. Our scalable, computational approach to massive news datasets opens up new pathways for systematic media framing studies.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {arXiv:2005.01803 [cs]},
	author = {Kwak, Haewoon and An, Jisun and Ahn, Yong-Yeol},
	month = may,
	year = {2020},
	note = {arXiv: 2005.01803},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Computation and Language, Computer Science - Computers and Society, J.4},
	file = {Kwak et al. - 2020 - A Systematic Media Frame Analysis of 1.5 Million N.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/X84B96KR/Kwak et al. - 2020 - A Systematic Media Frame Analysis of 1.5 Million N.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@techreport{boyd_characterizing_2018,
	type = {preprint},
	title = {Characterizing the {Internet} {Research} {Agency}’s {Social} {Media} {Operations} {During} the 2016 {U}.{S}. {Presidential} {Election} using {Linguistic} {Analyses}},
	url = {https://osf.io/ajh2q},
	abstract = {Converging investigations on the part of multiple agencies/agents have provided overwhelming evidence for Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. As a part (and consequence) of recent reports, multiple datasets that capture actions taken by actors of the Internet Research Agency (IRA), have been released to the public. In the current paper, we present and abridged report of several preliminary forensic analyses of Facebook ad data and Twitter troll accounts that were run by the IRA during the election cycle. Through the use of language analysis, we characterize the evolution of IRA content over the course of the election cycle, providing a basis for understanding how left- and right-leaning ideologies were differentially targeted to spread enmity among the American electorate. Additionally, through an analysis of syntactic constructions, we find that the content produced by the IRA on Twitter was linguistically unique from a control sample of English-speaking Twitter accounts. Altogether, our findings suggest that the IRA’s operations were largely unsophisticated and “lowbudget” in nature, with no serious attempts at point-oforigin obfuscation being taken.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	institution = {PsyArXiv},
	author = {Boyd, Ryan L. and Spangher, Alexander and Fourney, Adam and Nushi, Besmira and Ranade, Gireeja and Pennebaker, James and Horvitz, Eric},
	month = oct,
	year = {2018},
	doi = {10.31234/osf.io/ajh2q},
	file = {Boyd et al. - 2018 - Characterizing the Internet Research Agency’s Soci.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/K9778IJZ/Boyd et al. - 2018 - Characterizing the Internet Research Agency’s Soci.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{krippendorff_reliability_2004,
	title = {Reliability in {Content} {Analysis}: {Some} {Common} {Misconceptions} and {Recommendations}},
	volume = {30},
	issn = {0360-3989, 1468-2958},
	shorttitle = {Reliability in {Content} {Analysis}},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1093/hcr/30.3.411},
	doi = {10.1093/hcr/30.3.411},
	abstract = {In a recent article published in this journal, Lombard, Snyder-Duch, and Bracken (2002) surveyed 200 content analyses for their reporting of reliability tests; compared the virtues and drawbacks of five popular reliability measures; and proposed guidelines and standards for their use. Their discussion revealed that numerous misconceptions circulate in the content analysis literature regarding how these measures behave and can aid or deceive content analysts in their effort to ensure the reliability of their data. This paper proposes three conditions for statistical measures to serve as indices of the reliability of data and examines the mathematical structure and the behavior of the five coefficients discussed by the authors, plus two others. It compares common beliefs about these coefficients with what they actually do and concludes with alternative recommendations for testing reliability in content analysis and similar data-making efforts.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {Human Communication Research},
	author = {Krippendorff, K.},
	month = jul,
	year = {2004},
	pages = {411--433},
	file = {Krippendorff - 2004 - Reliability in Content Analysis Some Common Misco.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JQC8IWQX/Krippendorff - 2004 - Reliability in Content Analysis Some Common Misco.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{voigt_language_2017,
	title = {Language from police body camera footage shows racial disparities in officer respect},
	volume = {114},
	copyright = {©  . Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/114/25/6521},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.1702413114},
	abstract = {Using footage from body-worn cameras, we analyze the respectfulness of police officer language toward white and black community members during routine traffic stops. We develop computational linguistic methods that extract levels of respect automatically from transcripts, informed by a thin-slicing study of participant ratings of officer utterances. We find that officers speak with consistently less respect toward black versus white community members, even after controlling for the race of the officer, the severity of the infraction, the location of the stop, and the outcome of the stop. Such disparities in common, everyday interactions between police and the communities they serve have important implications for procedural justice and the building of police–community trust.},
	language = {en},
	number = {25},
	urldate = {2021-12-18},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Voigt, Rob and Camp, Nicholas P. and Prabhakaran, Vinodkumar and Hamilton, William L. and Hetey, Rebecca C. and Griffiths, Camilla M. and Jurgens, David and Jurafsky, Dan and Eberhardt, Jennifer L.},
	month = jun,
	year = {2017},
	pmid = {28584085},
	note = {Publisher: National Academy of Sciences
Section: Social Sciences},
	keywords = {natural language processing, policing, procedural justice, racial disparities, traffic stops},
	pages = {6521--6526},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/T64364SS/Voigt et al. - 2017 - Language from police body camera footage shows rac.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/HUSBS85M/6521.html:text/html},
}

@article{goldenstein_quest_2019,
	title = {A {Quest} for {Transparent} and {Reproducible} {Text}-{Mining} {Methodologies} in {Computational} {Social} {Science}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0081-1750, 1467-9531},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0081175019867855},
	doi = {10.1177/0081175019867855},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	journal = {Sociological Methodology},
	author = {Goldenstein, Jan and Poschmann, Philipp},
	month = aug,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {144--151},
	file = {Goldenstein and Poschmann - 2019 - A Quest for Transparent and Reproducible Text-Mini.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/SW5ZPIV3/Goldenstein and Poschmann - 2019 - A Quest for Transparent and Reproducible Text-Mini.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{goldenstein_analyzing_2019,
	title = {Analyzing {Meaning} in {Big} {Data}: {Performing} a {Map} {Analysis} {Using} {Grammatical} {Parsing} and {Topic} {Modeling}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0081-1750, 1467-9531},
	shorttitle = {Analyzing {Meaning} in {Big} {Data}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0081175019852762},
	doi = {10.1177/0081175019852762},
	abstract = {Social scientists have recently started discussing the utilization of textmining tools as being fruitful for scaling inductively grounded close reading. We aim to progress in this direction and provide a contemporary contribution to the literature. By focusing on map analysis, we demonstrate the potential of text-mining tools for text analysis that approaches inductive but still formal in-depth analysis. We propose that a combination of text-mining tools addressing different layers of meaning facilitates a closer analysis of the dynamics of manifest and latent meanings than is currently acknowledged. To illustrate our approach, we combine grammatical parsing and topic modeling to operationalize communication structures within sentences and the semantic surroundings of these communication structures. We use a reliable and downloadable software application to analyze the dynamic interlacement of two layers of meaning over time. We do so by analyzing 15,371 newspaper articles on corporate responsibility published in the United States from 1950 to 2013.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	journal = {Sociological Methodology},
	author = {Goldenstein, Jan and Poschmann, Philipp},
	month = aug,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {83--131},
	file = {Goldenstein and Poschmann - 2019 - Analyzing Meaning in Big Data Performing a Map An.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/Q9QQL6VG/Goldenstein and Poschmann - 2019 - Analyzing Meaning in Big Data Performing a Map An.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{monroe_meanings_2019,
	title = {The {Meanings} of “{Meaning}” in {Social} {Scientific} {Text} {Analysis}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0081-1750, 1467-9531},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0081175019865231},
	doi = {10.1177/0081175019865231},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	journal = {Sociological Methodology},
	author = {Monroe, Burt L.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {132--139},
	file = {Monroe - 2019 - The Meanings of “Meaning” in Social Scientific Tex.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/I84A3DU4/Monroe - 2019 - The Meanings of “Meaning” in Social Scientific Tex.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{da_computational_2019,
	title = {The {Computational} {Case} against {Computational} {Literary} {Studies}},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0093-1896, 1539-7858},
	url = {https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/702594},
	doi = {10.1086/702594},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	journal = {Critical Inquiry},
	author = {Da, Nan Z.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {601--639},
	file = {Da - 2019 - The Computational Case against Computational Liter.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8F5DT2SP/Da - 2019 - The Computational Case against Computational Liter.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{nelson_measure_2019,
	title = {To {Measure} {Meaning} in {Big} {Data}, {Don}’t {Give} {Me} a {Map}, {Give} {Me} {Transparency} and {Reproducibility}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0081-1750, 1467-9531},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0081175019863783},
	doi = {10.1177/0081175019863783},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	journal = {Sociological Methodology},
	author = {Nelson, Laura K.},
	month = aug,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {139--143},
	file = {Nelson - 2019 - To Measure Meaning in Big Data, Don’t Give Me a Ma.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZSQT8U4Q/Nelson - 2019 - To Measure Meaning in Big Data, Don’t Give Me a Ma.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{goldenstein_analyzing_2019-1,
	title = {Analyzing {Meaning} in {Big} {Data}: {Performing} a {Map} {Analysis} {Using} {Grammatical} {Parsing} and {Topic} {Modeling}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0081-1750, 1467-9531},
	shorttitle = {Analyzing {Meaning} in {Big} {Data}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0081175019852762},
	doi = {10.1177/0081175019852762},
	abstract = {Social scientists have recently started discussing the utilization of textmining tools as being fruitful for scaling inductively grounded close reading. We aim to progress in this direction and provide a contemporary contribution to the literature. By focusing on map analysis, we demonstrate the potential of text-mining tools for text analysis that approaches inductive but still formal in-depth analysis. We propose that a combination of text-mining tools addressing different layers of meaning facilitates a closer analysis of the dynamics of manifest and latent meanings than is currently acknowledged. To illustrate our approach, we combine grammatical parsing and topic modeling to operationalize communication structures within sentences and the semantic surroundings of these communication structures. We use a reliable and downloadable software application to analyze the dynamic interlacement of two layers of meaning over time. We do so by analyzing 15,371 newspaper articles on corporate responsibility published in the United States from 1950 to 2013.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	journal = {Sociological Methodology},
	author = {Goldenstein, Jan and Poschmann, Philipp},
	month = aug,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {83--131},
	file = {Goldenstein and Poschmann - 2019 - Analyzing Meaning in Big Data Performing a Map An.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/KDIEJR97/Goldenstein and Poschmann - 2019 - Analyzing Meaning in Big Data Performing a Map An.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{goldenstein_quest_2019-1,
	title = {A {Quest} for {Transparent} and {Reproducible} {Text}-{Mining} {Methodologies} in {Computational} {Social} {Science}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0081-1750, 1467-9531},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0081175019867855},
	doi = {10.1177/0081175019867855},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	journal = {Sociological Methodology},
	author = {Goldenstein, Jan and Poschmann, Philipp},
	month = aug,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {144--151},
	file = {Goldenstein and Poschmann - 2019 - A Quest for Transparent and Reproducible Text-Mini.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ZCFV9PTK/Goldenstein and Poschmann - 2019 - A Quest for Transparent and Reproducible Text-Mini.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@misc{liu_reading_2013,
	title = {“{From} {Reading} to {Social} {Computing}”},
	url = {https://dlsanthology.mla.hcommons.org/from-reading-to-social-computing/},
	abstract = {From Reading to Social Computing Alan Liu My topic here is social computing, which gives literary studies a chance to think anew about such apparently axiomatic literary phenomena as writing, publishing, reading, and interpreting. Or,…},
	language = {en-US},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	journal = {Literary Studies in the Digital Age},
	author = {Liu, Alan},
	year = {2013},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/KCS4ST3K/from-reading-to-social-computing.html:text/html},
}

@misc{noauthor_pii_nodate,
	title = {{PII}: {S0304}-{422X}(99)00022-4 {\textbar} {Elsevier} {Enhanced} {Reader}},
	shorttitle = {{PII}},
	url = {https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0304422X99000224?token=5A93860832D22C07E4EF6F75FD8D6E8FE4AD87708500579587D4205CB7C53145B07137376B2651E10523F0194C585808&originRegion=eu-west-1&originCreation=20211223185111},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	doi = {10.1016/S0304-422X(99)00022-4},
	file = {Full Text:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/33SRVV87/PII S0304-422X(99)00022-4  Elsevier Enhanced Rea.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/BESZWMNP/S0304422X99000224.html:text/html},
}

@article{bearman_becoming_2000,
	series = {Relational analysis and institutional meanings: {Formal} models for the study of culture},
	title = {Becoming a {Nazi}: {A} model for narrative networks},
	volume = {27},
	issn = {0304-422X},
	shorttitle = {Becoming a {Nazi}},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304422X99000224},
	doi = {10.1016/S0304-422X(99)00022-4},
	abstract = {This article illustrates a strategy for representing and analyzing narratives as networks. The strategy that we use considers narrative sequences as networks. Elements are treated as nodes which are connected by narrative clauses, represented by arcs. By representing complex event sequences as networks, inducing ‘narrative networks’, it is possible to observe and measure new structural features of narratives. The narratives we focus on are autobiographical accounts of becoming, and being, a Nazi. The substantive idea that we develop in this article is that the observable narrative structure of life stories can provide insight into the process of identity formation. We illustrate our approach to narrative networks by analyzing a single story that, in conjunction with the analysis of other stories, yields a set of insights into becoming and being.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	journal = {Poetics},
	author = {Bearman, Peter S. and Stovel, Katherine},
	month = mar,
	year = {2000},
	pages = {69--90},
	file = {ScienceDirect Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/RGK2QNI3/Bearman and Stovel - 2000 - Becoming a Nazi A model for narrative networks.pdf:application/pdf;ScienceDirect Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AYA98PIK/S0304422X99000224.html:text/html},
}

@inproceedings{leskovec_meme-tracking_2009,
	address = {Paris, France},
	title = {Meme-tracking and the dynamics of the news cycle},
	isbn = {978-1-60558-495-9},
	url = {http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1557019.1557077},
	doi = {10.1145/1557019.1557077},
	abstract = {Tracking new topics, ideas, and “memes” across the Web has been an issue of considerable interest. Recent work has developed methods for tracking topic shifts over long time scales, as well as abrupt spikes in the appearance of particular named entities. However, these approaches are less well suited to the identification of content that spreads widely and then fades over time scales on the order of days — the time scale at which we perceive news and events.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2021-12-23},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 15th {ACM} {SIGKDD} international conference on {Knowledge} discovery and data mining - {KDD} '09},
	publisher = {ACM Press},
	author = {Leskovec, Jure and Backstrom, Lars and Kleinberg, Jon},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {497},
	file = {Leskovec et al. - 2009 - Meme-tracking and the dynamics of the news cycle.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/5C9PKW73/Leskovec et al. - 2009 - Meme-tracking and the dynamics of the news cycle.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{smith_infectious_2013,
	title = {Infectious texts: {Modeling} text reuse in nineteenth-century newspapers},
	shorttitle = {Infectious texts},
	doi = {10.1109/BigData.2013.6691675},
	abstract = {Texts propagate through many social networks and provide evidence for their structure. We present efficient algorithms for detecting clusters of reused passages embedded within longer documents in large collections. We apply these techniques to analyzing the culture of reprinting in the United States before the Civil War. Without substantial copyright enforcement, stories, poems, news, and anecdotes circulated freely among newspapers, magazines, and books. From a collection of OCR'd newspapers, we extract a new corpus of reprinted texts, explore the geographic spread and network connections of different publications, and analyze the time dynamics of different genres.},
	booktitle = {2013 {IEEE} {International} {Conference} on {Big} {Data}},
	author = {Smith, David A. and Cordell, Ryan and Dillon, Elizabeth Maddock},
	month = oct,
	year = {2013},
	keywords = {Aggregates, Clustering algorithms, Heuristic algorithms, Indexing, Optical character recognition software, Social network services},
	pages = {86--94},
	file = {IEEE Xplore Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/2RZBFD8Y/Smith et al. - 2013 - Infectious texts Modeling text reuse in nineteent.pdf:application/pdf;IEEE Xplore Abstract Record:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/D97URAAU/6691675.html:text/html},
}

@article{nelson_computational_2020,
	title = {Computational {Grounded} {Theory}: {A} {Methodological} {Framework}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0049-1241, 1552-8294},
	shorttitle = {Computational {Grounded} {Theory}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0049124117729703},
	doi = {10.1177/0049124117729703},
	abstract = {This article proposes a three-step methodological framework called computational grounded theory, which combines expert human knowledge and hermeneutic skills with the processing power and pattern recognition of computers, producing a more methodologically rigorous but interpretive approach to content analysis. The first, pattern detection step, involves inductive computational exploration of text, using techniques such as unsupervised machine learning and word scores to help researchers to see novel patterns in their data. The second, pattern refinement step, returns to an interpretive engagement with the data through qualitative deep reading or further exploration of the data. The third, pattern confirmation step, assesses the inductively identified patterns using further computational and natural language processing techniques. The result is an efficient, rigorous, and fully reproducible computational grounded theory. This framework can be applied to any qualitative text as data, including transcribed speeches, interviews, open-ended survey data, or ethnographic field notes, and can address many potential research questions.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Sociological Methods \& Research},
	author = {Nelson, Laura K.},
	month = feb,
	year = {2020},
	pages = {3--42},
	file = {Nelson - 2020 - Computational Grounded Theory A Methodological Fr.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/TSS5I637/Nelson - 2020 - Computational Grounded Theory A Methodological Fr.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{boumans_taking_2016,
	title = {Taking {Stock} of the {Toolkit}},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {2167-0811},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2015.1096598},
	doi = {10.1080/21670811.2015.1096598},
	abstract = {When analyzing digital journalism content, journalism scholars are confronted with a number of substantial differences compared to traditional journalistic content. The sheer amount of data and the unique features of digital content call for the application of valuable new techniques. Various other scholarly fields are already applying computational methods to study digital journalism data. Often, their research interests are closely related to those of journalism scholars. Despite the advantages that computational methods have over traditional content analysis methods, they are not commonplace in digital journalism studies. To increase awareness of what computational methods have to offer, we take stock of the toolkit and show the ways in which computational methods can aid journalism studies. Distinguishing between dictionary-based approaches, supervised machine learning, and unsupervised machine learning, we present a systematic inventory of recent applications both inside as well as outside journalism studies. We conclude with suggestions for how the application of new techniques can be encouraged.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Digital Journalism},
	author = {Boumans, Jelle W. and Trilling, Damian},
	month = jan,
	year = {2016},
	note = {Publisher: Routledge
\_eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2015.1096598},
	keywords = {automated content analysis, computational social science, digital data, journalism studies, review},
	pages = {8--23},
	file = {Submitted Version:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/JK77M27J/Boumans and Trilling - 2016 - Taking Stock of the Toolkit.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/UCCXD7XL/21670811.2015.html:text/html},
}

@article{welbers_text_2017,
	title = {Text {Analysis} in {R}},
	volume = {11},
	issn = {1931-2458, 1931-2466},
	url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19312458.2017.1387238},
	doi = {10.1080/19312458.2017.1387238},
	abstract = {Computational text analysis has become an exciting research field with many applications in communication research. It can be a difficult method to apply, however, because it requires knowledge of various techniques, and the software required to perform most of these techniques is not readily available in common statistical software packages. In this teacher’s corner, we address these barriers by providing an overview of general steps and operations in a computational text analysis project, and demonstrate how each step can be performed using the R statistical software. As a popular open-source platform, R has an extensive user community that develops and maintains a wide range of text analysis packages. We show that these packages make it easy to perform advanced text analytics.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Communication Methods and Measures},
	author = {Welbers, Kasper and Van Atteveldt, Wouter and Benoit, Kenneth},
	month = oct,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {245--265},
	file = {Welbers et al. - 2017 - Text Analysis in R.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/7MAEZSXM/Welbers et al. - 2017 - Text Analysis in R.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{koplenig_impact_2017,
	title = {The impact of lacking metadata for the measurement of cultural and linguistic change using the {Google} {Ngram} data sets—{Reconstructing} the composition of the {German} corpus in times of {WWII}},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {2055-7671},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqv037},
	doi = {10.1093/llc/fqv037},
	abstract = {The Google Ngram Corpora seem to offer a unique opportunity to study linguistic and cultural change in quantitative terms. To avoid breaking any copyright laws, the data sets are not accompanied by any metadata regarding the texts the corpora consist of. Some of the consequences of this strategy are analyzed in this article. I chose the example of measuring censorship in Nazi Germany, which received widespread attention and was published in a paper that accompanied the release of the Google Ngram data (Michel et al. (2010): Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Science, 331(6014): 176–82). I show that without proper metadata, it is unclear whether the results actually reflect any kind of censorship at all. Collectively, the findings imply that observed changes in this period of time can only be linked directly to World War II to a certain extent. Therefore, instead of speaking about general linguistic or cultural change, it seems to be preferable to explicitly restrict the results to linguistic or cultural change ‘as it is represented in the Google Ngram data’. On a more general level, the analysis demonstrates the importance of metadata, the availability of which is not just a nice add-on, but a powerful source of information for the digital humanities.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Digital Scholarship in the Humanities},
	author = {Koplenig, Alexander},
	month = apr,
	year = {2017},
	pages = {169--188},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/WJ2TP4FZ/2957375.html:text/html},
}

@article{jackson_loosening_2019,
	title = {The loosening of {American} culture over 200 years is associated with a creativity–order trade-off},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2397-3374},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-018-0516-z},
	doi = {10.1038/s41562-018-0516-z},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Nature Human Behaviour},
	author = {Jackson, Joshua Conrad and Gelfand, Michele and De, Soham and Fox, Amber},
	month = mar,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {244--250},
	file = {Jackson et al. - 2019 - The loosening of American culture over 200 years i.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/M4YZ3MQF/Jackson et al. - 2019 - The loosening of American culture over 200 years i.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{koplenig_impact_2015,
	title = {The {Impact} of {Lacking} {Metadata} for the {Measurement} of {Cultural} and {Linguistic} {Change} {Using} the {Google} {Ngram} {Data} {Sets}—{Reconstructing} the {Composition} of the {German} {Corpus} in {Times} of {WWII}},
	issn = {2055-7671, 2055-768X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/dsh/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/llc/fqv037},
	doi = {10.1093/llc/fqv037},
	abstract = {The Google Ngram Corpora seem to offer a unique opportunity to study linguistic and cultural change in quantitative terms. To avoid breaking any copyright laws, the data sets are not accompanied by any metadata regarding the texts the corpora consist of. Some of the consequences of this strategy are analyzed in this article. I chose the example of measuring censorship in Nazi Germany, which received widespread attention and was published in a paper that accompanied the release of the Google Ngram data (Michel et al. (2010): Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Science, 331(6014): 176–82). I show that without proper metadata, it is unclear whether the results actually reflect any kind of censorship at all. Collectively, the findings imply that observed changes in Correspondence: Alexander Koplenig, Institute for the German language (IDS) Postfach 10 16 21, 68016 Mannheim, Germany. E-mail: koplenig@ids-mannheim.de this period of time can only be linked directly to World War II to a certain extent.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Digital Scholarship in the Humanities},
	author = {Koplenig, Alexander},
	month = sep,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {fqv037},
	file = {Koplenig - 2015 - The Impact of Lacking Metadata for the Measurement.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/I7G3PLXF/Koplenig - 2015 - The Impact of Lacking Metadata for the Measurement.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@inproceedings{tatman_gender_2017,
	address = {Valencia, Spain},
	title = {Gender and {Dialect} {Bias} in {YouTube}'s {Automatic} {Captions}},
	url = {http://aclweb.org/anthology/W17-1606},
	doi = {10.18653/v1/W17-1606},
	abstract = {This project evaluates the accuracy of YouTube’s automatically-generated captions across two genders and five dialects of English. Speakers’ dialect and gender was controlled for by using videos uploaded as part of the “accent tag challenge”, where speakers explicitly identify their language background. The results show robust differences in accuracy across both gender and dialect, with lower accuracy for 1) women and 2) speakers from Scotland. This finding builds on earlier research finding that speaker’s sociolinguistic identity may negatively impact their ability to use automatic speech recognition, and demonstrates the need for sociolinguistically-stratified validation of systems.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the {First} {ACL} {Workshop} on {Ethics} in {Natural} {Language} {Processing}},
	publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
	author = {Tatman, Rachael},
	year = {2017},
	pages = {53--59},
	file = {Tatman - 2017 - Gender and Dialect Bias in YouTube's Automatic Cap.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ENMJWYC8/Tatman - 2017 - Gender and Dialect Bias in YouTube's Automatic Cap.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{olteanu_social_2019,
	title = {Social {Data}: {Biases}, {Methodological} {Pitfalls}, and {Ethical} {Boundaries}},
	volume = {2},
	issn = {2624-909X},
	shorttitle = {Social {Data}},
	url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fdata.2019.00013/full},
	doi = {10.3389/fdata.2019.00013},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Frontiers in Big Data},
	author = {Olteanu, Alexandra and Castillo, Carlos and Diaz, Fernando and Kıcıman, Emre},
	month = jul,
	year = {2019},
	pages = {13},
	file = {Olteanu et al. - 2019 - Social Data Biases, Methodological Pitfalls, and .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/SSI488Y2/Olteanu et al. - 2019 - Social Data Biases, Methodological Pitfalls, and .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{biber_using_1993,
	title = {Using {Register}-{Diversified} {Corpora} for {General} {Language} {Studies}},
	volume = {19},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	journal = {Computational Linguistics},
	author = {Biber, Douglas},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {24},
	file = {Biber - Using Register-Diversified Corpora for General Lan.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/I4HVRT3M/Biber - Using Register-Diversified Corpora for General Lan.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{schwartz_personality_2013,
	title = {Personality, {Gender}, and {Age} in the {Language} of {Social} {Media}: {The} {Open}-{Vocabulary} {Approach}},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {1932-6203},
	shorttitle = {Personality, {Gender}, and {Age} in the {Language} of {Social} {Media}},
	url = {https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073791},
	doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0073791},
	abstract = {We analyzed 700 million words, phrases, and topic instances collected from the Facebook messages of 75,000 volunteers, who also took standard personality tests, and found striking variations in language with personality, gender, and age. In our open-vocabulary technique, the data itself drives a comprehensive exploration of language that distinguishes people, finding connections that are not captured with traditional closed-vocabulary word-category analyses. Our analyses shed new light on psychosocial processes yielding results that are face valid (e.g., subjects living in high elevations talk about the mountains), tie in with other research (e.g., neurotic people disproportionately use the phrase ‘sick of’ and the word ‘depressed’), suggest new hypotheses (e.g., an active life implies emotional stability), and give detailed insights (males use the possessive ‘my’ when mentioning their ‘wife’ or ‘girlfriend’ more often than females use ‘my’ with ‘husband’ or ’boyfriend’). To date, this represents the largest study, by an order of magnitude, of language and personality.},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {PLoS ONE},
	author = {Schwartz, H. Andrew and Eichstaedt, Johannes C. and Kern, Margaret L. and Dziurzynski, Lukasz and Ramones, Stephanie M. and Agrawal, Megha and Shah, Achal and Kosinski, Michal and Stillwell, David and Seligman, Martin E. P. and Ungar, Lyle H.},
	editor = {Preis, Tobias},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {e73791},
	file = {Schwartz et al. - 2013 - Personality, Gender, and Age in the Language of So.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/VAN9SNAJ/Schwartz et al. - 2013 - Personality, Gender, and Age in the Language of So.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{greenfield_changing_2013-1,
	title = {The {Changing} {Psychology} of {Culture} {From} 1800 {Through} 2000},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {0956-7976, 1467-9280},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956797613479387},
	doi = {10.1177/0956797613479387},
	abstract = {The Google Books Ngram Viewer allows researchers to quantify culture across centuries by searching millions of books. This tool was used to test theory-based predictions about implications of an urbanizing population for the psychology of culture. Adaptation to rural environments prioritizes social obligation and duty, giving to other people, social belonging, religion in everyday life, authority relations, and physical activity. Adaptation to urban environments requires more individualistic and materialistic values; such adaptation prioritizes choice, personal possessions, and child-centered socialization in order to foster the development of psychological mindedness and the unique self. The Google Ngram Viewer generated relative frequencies of words indexing these values from the years 1800 to 2000 in American English books. As urban populations increased and rural populations declined, word frequencies moved in the predicted directions. Books published in the United Kingdom replicated this pattern. The analysis established long-term relationships between ecological change and cultural change, as predicted by the theory of social change and human development (Greenfield, 2009).},
	language = {en},
	number = {9},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Psychological Science},
	author = {Greenfield, Patricia M.},
	month = sep,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {1722--1731},
	file = {Greenfield - 2013 - The Changing Psychology of Culture From 1800 Throu.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/UDWVPJCQ/Greenfield - 2013 - The Changing Psychology of Culture From 1800 Throu.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{campos_survey_2015,
	title = {Survey of {Temporal} {Information} {Retrieval} and {Related} {Applications}},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0360-0300, 1557-7341},
	url = {https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2619088},
	doi = {10.1145/2619088},
	abstract = {Temporal information retrieval has been a topic of great interest in recent years. Its purpose is to improve the effectiveness of information retrieval methods by exploiting temporal information in documents and queries. In this article, we present a survey of the existing literature on temporal information retrieval. In addition to giving an overview of the field, we categorize the relevant research, describe the main contributions, and compare different approaches. We organize existing research to provide a coherent view, discuss several open issues, and point out some possible future research directions in this area. Despite significant advances, the area lacks a systematic arrangement of prior efforts and an overview of state-of-the-art approaches. Moreover, an effective end-to-end temporal retrieval system that exploits temporal information to improve the quality of the presented results remains undeveloped.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {ACM Computing Surveys},
	author = {Campos, Ricardo and Dias, Gaël and Jorge, Alípio M. and Jatowt, Adam},
	month = jan,
	year = {2015},
	pages = {1--41},
	file = {Campos et al. - 2015 - Survey of Temporal Information Retrieval and Relat.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/AFKSY734/Campos et al. - 2015 - Survey of Temporal Information Retrieval and Relat.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{barbera_automated_2021,
	title = {Automated {Text} {Classification} of {News} {Articles}: {A} {Practical} {Guide}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {1047-1987, 1476-4989},
	shorttitle = {Automated {Text} {Classification} of {News} {Articles}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/political-analysis/article/automated-text-classification-of-news-articles-a-practical-guide/10462DB284B1CD80C0FAE796AD786BC6},
	doi = {10.1017/pan.2020.8},
	abstract = {Automated text analysis methods have made possible the classification of large corpora of text by measures such as topic and tone. Here, we provide a guide to help researchers navigate the consequential decisions they need to make before any measure can be produced from the text. We consider, both theoretically and empirically, the effects of such choices using as a running example efforts to measure the tone of New York Times coverage of the economy. We show that two reasonable approaches to corpus selection yield radically different corpora and we advocate for the use of keyword searches rather than predefined subject categories provided by news archives. We demonstrate the benefits of coding using article segments instead of sentences as units of analysis. We show that, given a fixed number of codings, it is better to increase the number of unique documents coded rather than the number of coders for each document. Finally, we find that supervised machine learning algorithms outperform dictionaries on a number of criteria. Overall, we intend this guide to serve as a reminder to analysts that thoughtfulness and human validation are key to text-as-data methods, particularly in an age when it is all too easy to computationally classify texts without attending to the methodological choices therein.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Political Analysis},
	author = {Barberá, Pablo and Boydstun, Amber E. and Linn, Suzanna and McMahon, Ryan and Nagler, Jonathan},
	month = jan,
	year = {2021},
	note = {Publisher: Cambridge University Press},
	keywords = {automated content analysis, statistical analysis of texts, content analysis},
	pages = {19--42},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/9IY2SER4/Barberá et al. - 2021 - Automated Text Classification of News Articles A .pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/V5RS9ZXT/10462DB284B1CD80C0FAE796AD786BC6.html:text/html},
}

@article{laver_extracting_2003,
	title = {Extracting {Policy} {Positions} from {Political} {Texts} {Using} {Words} as {Data}},
	volume = {97},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/3118211},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	journal = {The American Political Science Review},
	author = {Laver, Michael and Benoit, Kenneth and Garry, John},
	year = {2003},
	pages = {311--331},
	file = {Laver et al. - 2003 - Extracting Policy Positions from Political Texts U.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/PQ8JJAXU/Laver et al. - 2003 - Extracting Policy Positions from Political Texts U.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{brier_computer_2011,
	title = {Computer assisted text analysis in the social sciences},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0033-5177, 1573-7845},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11135-010-9350-8},
	doi = {10.1007/s11135-010-9350-8},
	abstract = {We use the term “Computer Assisted Text Analysis” in a broad sense to refer to a range of current techniques from quantitative social science and content analysis to ‘data mining’ and ‘text classification’, including the analysis of open-ended survey questions, transcribed interviews and speeches, wherever, in fact, the researcher is confronted with data in the form of natural language texts of social scientific interest. These methods are often used in exploratory data analysis, but can also be applied systematically with moderate statistical rigour in the development and testing of hypotheses at various theoretical levels, ranging from the statistics of word usage to changes within or between discourses over time. The general approach is in the tradition of content analysis, by which words which occur together in relatively close proximity in the same context are interpreted as relating to a common theme or concept in the discourse studied. We review a comprehensive set of tools to identify and visualize structures of co-occurrence of words and concepts both within, and in comparing, a number of texts. These produce results not essentially different from those reached by representing word co-occurrences in terms of network analysis or neural network programming using schematic linguistic templates of various kinds. A comparison of the relational data analysis vs. a dictionary-based MDS approach shows that these provide very close if not identical results, despite the fact that the underlying assumptions are frequently represented as different theoretical approaches.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Quality \& Quantity},
	author = {Brier, Alan and Hopp, Bruno},
	month = jan,
	year = {2011},
	pages = {103--128},
	file = {Brier and Hopp - 2011 - Computer assisted text analysis in the social scie.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/BFTAJ86R/Brier and Hopp - 2011 - Computer assisted text analysis in the social scie.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bail_fringe_2012,
	title = {The {Fringe} {Effect}: {Civil} {Society} {Organizations} and the {Evolution} of {Media} {Discourse} about {Islam} since the {September} 11th {Attacks}},
	volume = {77},
	issn = {0003-1224, 1939-8271},
	shorttitle = {The {Fringe} {Effect}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0003122412465743},
	doi = {10.1177/0003122412465743},
	abstract = {Numerous studies indicate that civil society organizations create cultural change by deploying mainstream messages that resonate with prevailing discursive themes. Yet these case studies of highly influential organizations obscure the much larger population that have little or no impact. It is therefore unclear whether civil society organizations create cultural change by deploying mainstream discourses or if they become part of the mainstream because of their success. I present an evolutionary theory of how discursive fields settle after major historical ruptures that highlights framing, social networks, and emotional energy. To illustrate this theory, I use plagiarism detection software to compare 1,084 press releases about Muslims produced by 120 civil society organizations to 50,407 newspaper articles and television transcripts produced between 2001 and 2008. Although most organizations deployed pro-Muslim discourses after the September 11th attacks, I show that anti-Muslim fringe organizations dominated the mass media via displays of fear and anger. Institutional amplification of this emotional energy, I argue, created a gravitational pull or “fringe effect” that realigned inter-organizational networks and altered the contours of mainstream discourse itself.},
	language = {en},
	number = {6},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {American Sociological Review},
	author = {Bail, Christopher A.},
	month = dec,
	year = {2012},
	pages = {855--879},
	file = {Bail - 2012 - The Fringe Effect Civil Society Organizations and.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/87ID7XN3/Bail - 2012 - The Fringe Effect Civil Society Organizations and.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{urman_matter_2021,
	title = {The {Matter} of {Chance}: {Auditing} {Web} {Search} {Results} {Related} to the 2020 {U}.{S}. {Presidential} {Primary} {Elections} {Across} {Six} {Search} {Engines}},
	issn = {0894-4393, 1552-8286},
	shorttitle = {The {Matter} of {Chance}},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/08944393211006863},
	doi = {10.1177/08944393211006863},
	abstract = {We examine how six search engines filter and rank information in relation to the queries on the U.S. 2020 presidential primary elections under the default—that is nonpersonalized—conditions. For that, we utilize an algorithmic auditing methodology that uses virtual agents to conduct large-scale analysis of algorithmic information curation in a controlled environment. Specifically, we look at the text search results for “us elections,” “donald trump,” “joe biden,” “bernie sanders” queries on Google, Baidu, Bing, DuckDuckGo, Yahoo, and Yandex, during the 2020 primaries. Our findings indicate substantial differences in the search results between search engines and multiple discrepancies within the results generated for different agents using the same search engine. It highlights that whether users see certain information is decided by chance due to the inherent randomization of search results. We also find that some search engines prioritize different categories of information sources with respect to specific candidates. These observations demonstrate that algorithmic curation of political information can create information inequalities between the search engine users even under nonpersonalized conditions. Such inequalities are particularly troubling considering that search results are highly trusted by the public and can shift the opinions of undecided voters as demonstrated by previous research.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {Social Science Computer Review},
	author = {Urman, Aleksandra and Makhortykh, Mykola and Ulloa, Roberto},
	month = apr,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {089443932110068},
	file = {Urman et al. - 2021 - The Matter of Chance Auditing Web Search Results .pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/XCYXDKN4/Urman et al. - 2021 - The Matter of Chance Auditing Web Search Results .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{gomaa_survey_2013,
	title = {A {Survey} of {Text} {Similarity} {Approaches}},
	volume = {68},
	issn = {09758887},
	url = {http://research.ijcaonline.org/volume68/number13/pxc3887118.pdf},
	doi = {10.5120/11638-7118},
	abstract = {Measuring the similarity between words, sentences, paragraphs and documents is an important component in various tasks such as information retrieval, document clustering, word-sense disambiguation, automatic essay scoring, short answer grading, machine translation and text summarization. This survey discusses the existing works on text similarity through partitioning them into three approaches; String-based, Corpus-based and Knowledgebased similarities. Furthermore, samples of combination between these similarities are presented.},
	language = {en},
	number = {13},
	urldate = {2022-01-02},
	journal = {International Journal of Computer Applications},
	author = {Gomaa, Wael and Fahmy, Aly},
	month = apr,
	year = {2013},
	pages = {13--18},
	file = {H.Gomaa and A. Fahmy - 2013 - A Survey of Text Similarity Approaches.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8LQ79WMW/H.Gomaa and A. Fahmy - 2013 - A Survey of Text Similarity Approaches.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{tausczik_psychological_2010,
	title = {The {Psychological} {Meaning} of {Words}: {LIWC} and {Computerized} {Text} {Analysis} {Methods}},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0261-927X},
	shorttitle = {The {Psychological} {Meaning} of {Words}},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X09351676},
	doi = {10.1177/0261927X09351676},
	abstract = {We are in the midst of a technological revolution whereby, for the first time, researchers can link daily word use to a broad array of real-world behaviors. This article reviews several computerized text analysis methods and describes how Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) was created and validated. LIWC is a transparent text analysis program that counts words in psychologically meaningful categories. Empirical results using LIWC demonstrate its ability to detect meaning in a wide variety of experimental settings, including to show attentional focus, emotionality, social relationships, thinking styles, and individual differences.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {Journal of Language and Social Psychology},
	author = {Tausczik, Yla R. and Pennebaker, James W.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2010},
	note = {Publisher: SAGE Publications Inc},
	keywords = {attention, computerized text analysis, deception, dominance, LIWC, pronouns, relationships},
	pages = {24--54},
	file = {SAGE PDF Full Text:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/3UUDSX2M/Tausczik and Pennebaker - 2010 - The Psychological Meaning of Words LIWC and Compu.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{aiden_culturomicsresponse_2011,
	title = {Culturomics—{Response}},
	copyright = {Copyright © 2011, American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	url = {https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.332.6025.36-a},
	doi = {10.1126/science.332.6025.36-a},
	abstract = {We thank Morse-Gagné and Schwartz for their Letters, and we are happy to have the opportunity to clarify.},
	language = {EN},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Aiden, Erez Lieberman and Pickett, Joseph P. and Michel, Jean-Baptiste},
	month = apr,
	year = {2011},
	note = {Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CCV2MVWA/science.332.6025.html:text/html},
}

@article{morse-gagne_culturomics_2011,
	title = {Culturomics: {Statistical} {Traps} {Muddy} the {Data}},
	copyright = {Copyright © 2011, American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	shorttitle = {Culturomics},
	url = {https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.332.6025.35-b},
	doi = {10.1126/science.332.6025.35-b},
	abstract = {In their generally worthwhile discussion of developments in the English language (“Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books,” Research Article, 14 January, p. 176), J.-B. Michel et al. fall into two common traps. First, they assume that the total number of words published in English is a meaningful statistic. Although this figure seems impressive—and has traditionally been used to validate English speakers' belief that their language is exceptional [e.g., (1)]—it primarily reflects the large number of English speakers and their relatively high per capita publication rates. The statistic has little to do with the number of words available to an individual English speaker. Second, the authors claim that the English lexicon “is enjoying a period of enormous growth” and that “the size of the language” has grown “by over 70\% during the past 50 years.” However, they are not measuring the English lexicon directly; they are measuring the written record of the English lexicon. These two concepts should be kept distinct. If the fossil record shows more dinosaur footprints in one period than another, it does not necessarily mean that there were more dinosaurs—it may be that there was more mud.},
	language = {EN},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Morse-Gagné, Elise E.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2011},
	note = {Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/8NG9C2PG/science.332.6025.html:text/html},
}

@article{schwartz_culturomics_2011,
	title = {Culturomics: {Periodicals} {Gauge} {Culture}'s {Pulse}},
	copyright = {Copyright © 2011, American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	shorttitle = {Culturomics},
	url = {https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.332.6025.35-c},
	doi = {10.1126/science.332.6025.35-c},
	abstract = {From the perspective of an artist who mines digital information to understand shifts in temporal culture, the analysis of Google books and the initial description of trends in our culture by J.-B. Michel et al. (“Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books,” Research Article, 14 January, p. 176) is an important step forward in using current digital techniques as a window into history. Although Michel et al.'s study was rigorous, the selection of books has certain drawbacks. First, the sample reflects not all published books, but only those that Google or their partners deemed worthy of digital reproduction. Second, and more important, books are inherently more distant from the pulse of a culture than periodicals, in particular newspapers. Book publishing has a substantial lag time to print; periodicals are closer to real-time. Furthermore, as we move further away from news media, we see a shift toward greater analysis, filtering, and a narrowing of subjects. For these reasons, analyses of culture based on the written record should include a wide variety of texts. One of the ultimate challenges to this type of research is representing information in a manner that is effective and relevant to viewers within our culture.},
	language = {EN},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Schwartz, Tim},
	month = apr,
	year = {2011},
	note = {Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/GFI7Z3UP/science.332.6025.html:text/html},
}

@article{bohannon_google_2011,
	title = {Google {Books}, {Wikipedia}, and the {Future} of {Culturomics}},
	copyright = {Copyright © 2011, American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	url = {https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.331.6014.135},
	doi = {10.1126/science.331.6014.135},
	abstract = {As a follow-up to the quantitative analysis of data obtained from Google Books published online in Science on 16 December 2010 and in this week's issue on page 176, one of the study's authors has been using Wikipedia to analyze the fame of scientists ...},
	language = {EN},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {Science},
	author = {Bohannon, John},
	month = jan,
	year = {2011},
	note = {Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/CBTU9ERE/science.331.6014.html:text/html},
}

@article{schulz_what_2011,
	chapter = {Books},
	title = {What {Is} {Distant} {Reading}?},
	issn = {0362-4331},
	url = {https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/26/books/review/the-mechanic-muse-what-is-distant-reading.html},
	abstract = {To uncover the true nature of literature, a scholar says, don’t read the books.},
	language = {en-US},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {The New York Times},
	author = {Schulz, Kathryn},
	month = jun,
	year = {2011},
	keywords = {Books and Literature, Computers and the Internet, Research},
	file = {Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/Y74G8VNC/the-mechanic-muse-what-is-distant-reading.html:text/html},
}

@article{nelson_future_2021,
	title = {The {Future} of {Coding}: {A} {Comparison} of {Hand}-{Coding} and {Three} {Types} of {Computer}-{Assisted} {Text} {Analysis} {Methods}},
	volume = {50},
	issn = {0049-1241},
	shorttitle = {The {Future} of {Coding}},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124118769114},
	doi = {10.1177/0049124118769114},
	abstract = {Advances in computer science and computational linguistics have yielded new, and faster, computational approaches to structuring and analyzing textual data. These approaches perform well on tasks like information extraction, but their ability to identify complex, socially constructed, and unsettled theoretical concepts—a central goal of sociological content analysis—has not been tested. To fill this gap, we compare the results produced by three common computer-assisted approaches—dictionary, supervised machine learning (SML), and unsupervised machine learning—to those produced through a rigorous hand-coding analysis of inequality in the news (N = 1,253 articles). Although we find that SML methods perform best in replicating hand-coded results, we document and clarify the strengths and weaknesses of each approach, including how they can complement one another. We argue that content analysts in the social sciences would do well to keep all these approaches in their toolkit, deploying them purposefully according to the task at hand.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {Sociological Methods \& Research},
	author = {Nelson, Laura K. and Burk, Derek and Knudsen, Marcel and McCall, Leslie},
	month = feb,
	year = {2021},
	note = {Publisher: SAGE Publications Inc},
	keywords = {content/text analysis, dictionary methods, hand-coding methods, inequality, supervised machine learning, unsupervised machine learning},
	pages = {202--237},
	file = {SAGE PDF Full Text:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/LUGQZ99X/Nelson et al. - 2021 - The Future of Coding A Comparison of Hand-Coding .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mk_survey_2016,
	title = {A {Survey} on {Similarity} {Measures} in {Text} {Mining}},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {23940840},
	url = {http://www.aircconline.com/mlaij/V3N1/3116mlaij03.pdf},
	doi = {10.5121/mlaij.2016.3103},
	abstract = {The Volume of text resources have been increasing in digital libraries and internet. Organizing these text documents has become a practical need. For organizing great number of objects into small or minimum number of coherent groups automatically, Clustering technique is used. These documents are widely used for information retrieval and Natural Language processing tasks. Different Clustering algorithms require a metric for quantifying how dissimilar two given documents are. This difference is often measured by similarity measure such as Euclidean distance, Cosine similarity etc. The similarity measure process in text mining can be used to identify the suitable clustering algorithm for a specific problem. This survey discusses the existing works on text similarity by partitioning them into three significant approaches; String-based, Knowledge based and Corpus-based similarities.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {Machine Learning and Applications: An International Journal},
	author = {M.K, Vijaymeena and K, Kavitha},
	month = mar,
	year = {2016},
	pages = {19--28},
	file = {M.K and K - 2016 - A Survey on Similarity Measures in Text Mining.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/SQ4P3VKP/M.K and K - 2016 - A Survey on Similarity Measures in Text Mining.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kowsari_text_2019,
	title = {Text {Classification} {Algorithms}: {A} {Survey}},
	volume = {10},
	copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
	shorttitle = {Text {Classification} {Algorithms}},
	url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/10/4/150},
	doi = {10.3390/info10040150},
	abstract = {In recent years, there has been an exponential growth in the number of complex documents and texts that require a deeper understanding of machine learning methods to be able to accurately classify texts in many applications. Many machine learning approaches have achieved surpassing results in natural language processing. The success of these learning algorithms relies on their capacity to understand complex models and non-linear relationships within data. However, finding suitable structures, architectures, and techniques for text classification is a challenge for researchers. In this paper, a brief overview of text classification algorithms is discussed. This overview covers different text feature extractions, dimensionality reduction methods, existing algorithms and techniques, and evaluations methods. Finally, the limitations of each technique and their application in real-world problems are discussed.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {Information},
	author = {Kowsari, Kamran and Jafari Meimandi, Kiana and Heidarysafa, Mojtaba and Mendu, Sanjana and Barnes, Laura and Brown, Donald},
	month = apr,
	year = {2019},
	note = {Number: 4
Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute},
	keywords = {text categorization, document classification, text analysis, text classification, text mining, text representation},
	pages = {150},
	file = {Full Text PDF:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/XPNQ29V8/Kowsari et al. - 2019 - Text Classification Algorithms A Survey.pdf:application/pdf;Snapshot:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/L5B7PIAK/150.html:text/html},
}

@misc{noauthor_methodological_nodate,
	title = {The {Methodological} {Divide} of {Sociology}: {Evidence} from {Two} {Decades} of {Journal} {Publications} - {Carsten} {Schwemmer}, {Oliver} {Wieczorek}, 2020},
	url = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0038038519853146},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	file = {The Methodological Divide of Sociology\: Evidence from Two Decades of Journal Publications - Carsten Schwemmer, Oliver Wieczorek, 2020:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/6V2N6PXI/0038038519853146.html:text/html},
}

@article{schwemmer_methodological_2020,
	title = {The {Methodological} {Divide} of {Sociology}: {Evidence} from {Two} {Decades} of {Journal} {Publications}},
	volume = {54},
	abstract = {Past research indicates that Sociology is a low-consensus discipline, where different schools of thought have distinct expectations about suitable scientific practices. This division of Sociology into different subfields is to a large extent related to methodology and choices between qualitative or quantitative research methods. Relying on theoretical constructs of the academic prestige economy, boundary demarcation and taste for research, we examine the methodological divide in generalist Sociology journals. Using automated text analysis for 8737 abstracts of articles published between 1995 and 2017, we discover evidence of this divide, but also of an entanglement between methodological choices and different research topics. Moreover, our results suggest a marginally increasing time trend for the publication of quantitative research in generalist journals. We discuss how this consolidation of methodological practices could enforce the entrenchment of different schools of thought, which ultimately reduces the potential for innovative and effective sociological research.},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	journal = {Sociology},
	author = {Schwemmer, Carsten and Wieczorek, Oliver},
	year = {2020},
	pages = {3--21},
	file = {Schwemmer and Wieczorek - The Methodological Divide of Sociology Evidence f.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/464X9UD8/Schwemmer and Wieczorek - The Methodological Divide of Sociology Evidence f.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kaneko_estimating_2021,
	title = {Estimating {Ideal} {Points} of {Newspapers} from {Editorial} {Texts}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {1940-1612, 1940-1620},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1940161220935058},
	doi = {10.1177/1940161220935058},
	abstract = {Although measuring the ideal points of news media is essential for testing political communication theories based on spatial theory, prior methods of estimating ideal points of media outlets have various shortcomings, including high cost in terms of time and human resources and low applicability to different countries. We propose that unsupervised machine learning techniques for text data, specifically the combination of a text scaling method and latent topic modeling, can be applied to estimate ideal points of media outlets. We applied our proposed methods to editorial texts of ten national and regional newspapers in Japan, where prior approaches are not applicable because newspapers have never officially endorsed particular parties or candidates, and because high-quality training data for supervised learning are not available. Our two studies, one of which analyzed editorials on a single typically ideological topic while the other investigated all editorials published by the target papers in one year, confirmed the popular view of Japanese newspapers’ ideological slant, which validates the effectiveness of our proposed approach. We also illustrate that our methods allow scholars to investigate which issues are closely related to the respective ideological positions of media outlets. Furthermore, we use the estimated ideal points of newspapers to show that Japanese people partially tend to read ideologically likeminded newspapers and follow such newspapers’ Twitter accounts even though their slant is not explicit.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {The International Journal of Press/Politics},
	author = {Kaneko, Tomoki and Asano, Taka-aki and Miwa, Hirofumi},
	month = jul,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {719--742},
	file = {Kaneko et al. - 2021 - Estimating Ideal Points of Newspapers from Editori.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/HAH3Y4KM/Kaneko et al. - 2021 - Estimating Ideal Points of Newspapers from Editori.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kluver_promises_2015,
	title = {The promises of quantitative text analysis in interest group research: {A} reply to {Bunea} and {Ibenskas}},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {1465-1165},
	shorttitle = {The promises of quantitative text analysis in interest group research},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1177/1465116515581669},
	doi = {10.1177/1465116515581669},
	abstract = {Quantitative text analysis constitutes a promising new method that allows for measuring the policy positions and the lobbying success of interest groups by analyzing their submissions to legislative consultations (Klüver, 2009). The use of quantitative text analysis allowed me to present a novel and unique research design which was the largest in scope at the time and resulted in important new insights regarding the determinants of lobbying success (Klüver, 2009, 2011, 2013). In their recent article, Bunea and Ibenskas (2015) however question the usefulness of quantitative text analysis for studying interest groups and discuss several issues which in their view constitute important disadvantages of the technique. In this article I carefully discuss each of their arguments and show that none of their objections actually prevents scholars from successfully using quantitative text analysis to study interest groups in the European Union and beyond.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {European Union Politics},
	author = {Klüver, Heike},
	month = sep,
	year = {2015},
	note = {Publisher: SAGE Publications},
	keywords = {Influence, interest groups, lobbying, quantitative text analysis, Wordfish},
	pages = {456--466},
	file = {SAGE PDF Full Text:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/BSDVX4AB/Klüver - 2015 - The promises of quantitative text analysis in inte.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kluver_measuring_2009,
	title = {Measuring {Interest} {Group} {Influence} {Using} {Quantitative} {Text} {Analysis}},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1465-1165, 1741-2757},
	url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1465116509346782},
	doi = {10.1177/1465116509346782},
	abstract = {The analysis of interest group influence is crucial in order to explain policy outcomes and to assess the democratic legitimacy of the European Union. However, owing to methodological difficulties in operationalizing influence, only few have studied it. This article therefore proposes a new approach to the measurement of influence, drawing on quantitative text analysis. By comparing interest groups’ policy positions with the final policy output, one can draw conclusions about the winners and losers of the decisionmaking process. In order to examine the applicability of text analysis, a case study is presented comparing hand-coding, WORDSCORES and Wordfish. The results correlate highly and text analysis proves to be a powerful tool to measure interest groups’ policy positions, paving the way for the large-scale analysis of interest group influence.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {European Union Politics},
	author = {Klüver, Heike},
	month = dec,
	year = {2009},
	pages = {535--549},
	file = {Klüver - 2009 - Measuring Interest Group Influence Using Quantitat.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/SZLGZPJI/Klüver - 2009 - Measuring Interest Group Influence Using Quantitat.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bunea_quantitative_2015,
	title = {Quantitative text analysis and the study of {EU} lobbying and interest groups},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {1465-1165},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1177/1465116515577821},
	doi = {10.1177/1465116515577821},
	abstract = {Interest groups’ policy position documents constitute an important data source for estimating their policy positions and lobbying success. We examine applications of quantitative text analysis to research these documents in the context of the European Commission’s open consultations. We show a considerable degree of incongruity between this method’s assumptions and the text characteristics of EU position documents. We examine how these incongruities affect the validity of position estimates and conduct an empirical analysis of documents submitted in one consultation on CO2 car emissions. We compare estimates derived on both quantitative and qualitative content analysis and find relatively limited correspondence between the two. These observed differences matter substantively: they result in different findings concerning levels of interest groups’ lobbying success.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2022-01-03},
	journal = {European Union Politics},
	author = {Bunea, Adriana and Ibenskas, Raimondas},
	month = sep,
	year = {2015},
	note = {Publisher: SAGE Publications},
	keywords = {Content analysis, European Union lobbying, policy position estimates, preference attainment},
	pages = {429--455},
	file = {SAGE PDF Full Text:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/LCW8S4W5/Bunea and Ibenskas - 2015 - Quantitative text analysis and the study of EU lob.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{smith_automatic_2021,
	title = {Automatic {Detection} of {Influential} {Actors} in {Disinformation} {Networks}},
	volume = {118},
	issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},
	url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2005.10879},
	doi = {10.1073/pnas.2011216118},
	abstract = {The weaponization of digital communications and social media to conduct disinformation campaigns at immense scale, speed, and reach presents new challenges to identify and counter hostile influence operations (IOs). This paper presents an end-to-end framework to automate detection of disinformation narratives, networks, and influential actors. The framework integrates natural language processing, machine learning, graph analytics, and a novel network causal inference approach to quantify the impact of individual actors in spreading IO narratives. We demonstrate its capability on real-world hostile IO campaigns with Twitter datasets collected during the 2017 French presidential elections, and known IO accounts disclosed by Twitter over a broad range of IO campaigns (May 2007 to February 2020), over 50,000 accounts, 17 countries, and different account types including both trolls and bots. Our system detects IO accounts with 96\% precision, 79\% recall, and 96\% area-under-the-PR-curve, maps out salient network communities, and discovers high-impact accounts that escape the lens of traditional impact statistics based on activity counts and network centrality. Results are corroborated with independent sources of known IO accounts from U.S. Congressional reports, investigative journalism, and IO datasets provided by Twitter.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2022-02-24},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	author = {Smith, Steven T. and Kao, Edward K. and Mackin, Erika D. and Shah, Danelle C. and Simek, Olga and Rubin, Donald B.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2021},
	note = {arXiv: 2005.10879},
	keywords = {Computer Science - Machine Learning, Computer Science - Social and Information Networks, Statistics - Machine Learning, Statistics - Applications},
	pages = {e2011216118},
	file = {Smith et al. - 2021 - Automatic Detection of Influential Actors in Disin.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/USDNWTY9/Smith et al. - 2021 - Automatic Detection of Influential Actors in Disin.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{osnabrugge_playing_2021,
	title = {Playing to the {Gallery}: {Emotive} {Rhetoric} in {Parliaments}},
	volume = {115},
	issn = {0003-0554, 1537-5943},
	shorttitle = {Playing to the {Gallery}},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055421000356/type/journal_article},
	doi = {10.1017/S0003055421000356},
	abstract = {Research has shown that emotions matter in politics, but we know less about when and why politicians use emotive rhetoric in the legislative arena. This article argues that emotive rhetoric is one of the tools politicians can use strategically to appeal to voters. Consequently, we expect that legislators are more likely to use emotive rhetoric in debates that have a large general audience. Our analysis covers two million parliamentary speeches held in the UK House of Commons and the Irish Parliament. We use a dictionary-based method to measure emotive rhetoric, combining the Affective Norms for English Words dictionary with word-embedding techniques to create a domain-specific dictionary. We show that emotive rhetoric is more pronounced in high-profile legislative debates, such as Prime Minister’s Questions. These findings contribute to the study of legislative speech and political representation by suggesting that emotive rhetoric is used by legislators to appeal directly to voters.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2022-02-25},
	journal = {American Political Science Review},
	author = {Osnabrügge, Moritz and Hobolt, Sara B. and Rodon, Toni},
	month = aug,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {885--899},
	file = {Osnabrügge et al. - 2021 - Playing to the Gallery Emotive Rhetoric in Parlia.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/6VH5KK7M/Osnabrügge et al. - 2021 - Playing to the Gallery Emotive Rhetoric in Parlia.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rodriguez_word_2022,
	title = {Word {Embeddings}: {What} {Works}, {What} {Doesn}’t, and {How} to {Tell} the {Difference} for {Applied} {Research}},
	volume = {84},
	issn = {0022-3816},
	shorttitle = {Word {Embeddings}},
	url = {https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/715162},
	doi = {10.1086/715162},
	abstract = {Word embeddings are becoming popular for political science research, yet we know little about their properties and performance. To help scholars seeking to use these techniques, we explore the effects of key parameter choices—including context window length, embedding vector dimensions, and pretrained versus locally fit variants—on the efficiency and quality of inferences possible with these models. Reassuringly we show that results are generally robust to such choices for political corpora of various sizes and in various languages. Beyond reporting extensive technical findings, we provide a novel crowdsourced “Turing test”–style method for examining the relative performance of any two models that produce substantive, text-based outputs. Our results are encouraging: popular, easily available pretrained embeddings perform at a level close to—or surpassing—both human coders and more complicated locally fit models. For completeness, we provide best practice advice for cases where local fitting is required.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2022-02-25},
	journal = {The Journal of Politics},
	author = {Rodriguez, Pedro L. and Spirling, Arthur},
	month = jan,
	year = {2022},
	note = {Publisher: The University of Chicago Press},
	keywords = {crowdsourcing, deep learning, embeddings, text, Turing test},
	pages = {101--115},
}

@article{bonikowski2015,
	title = {The Populist Style in American Politics: Presidential Campaign Discourse, 1952{\textendash}1996},
	author = {Bonikowski, Bart and Gidron, Noam},
	year = {2015},
	month = {12},
	date = {2015-12-27},
	journal = {Social Forces},
	pages = {1593--1621},
	volume = {94},
	number = {4},
	doi = {10.1093/sf/sov120},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/sov120},
	langid = {en}
}


@article{baumard_cultural_2022,
	title = {The cultural evolution of love in literary history},
	issn = {2397-3374},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-022-01292-z},
	doi = {10.1038/s41562-022-01292-z},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2022-03-10},
	journal = {Nature Human Behaviour},
	author = {Baumard, Nicolas and Huillery, Elise and Hyafil, Alexandre and Safra, Lou},
	month = mar,
	year = {2022},
	file = {Baumard et al. - 2022 - The cultural evolution of love in literary history.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/ANIHC3R2/Baumard et al. - 2022 - The cultural evolution of love in literary history.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{michalopoulos_folklore_2021,
	title = {Folklore},
	volume = {136},
	issn = {0033-5533, 1531-4650},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/136/4/1993/6124640},
	doi = {10.1093/qje/qjab003},
	abstract = {Abstract
            Folklore is the collection of traditional beliefs, customs, and stories of a community passed through the generations by word of mouth. We introduce to economics a unique catalog of oral traditions spanning approximately 1,000 societies. After validating the catalog’s content by showing that the groups’ motifs reflect known geographic and social attributes, we present two sets of applications. First, we illustrate how to fill in the gaps and expand upon a group’s ethnographic record, focusing on political complexity, high gods, and trade. Second, we discuss how machine learning and human classification methods can help shed light on cultural traits, using gender roles, attitudes toward risk, and trust as examples. Societies with tales portraying men as dominant and women as submissive tend to relegate their women to subordinate positions in their communities, both historically and today. More risk-averse and less entrepreneurial people grew up listening to stories wherein competitions and challenges are more likely to be harmful than beneficial. Communities with low tolerance toward antisocial behavior, captured by the prevalence of tricksters being punished, are more trusting and prosperous today. These patterns hold across groups, countries, and second-generation immigrants. Overall, the results highlight the significance of folklore in cultural economics, calling for additional applications.},
	language = {en},
	number = {4},
	urldate = {2022-03-10},
	journal = {The Quarterly Journal of Economics},
	author = {Michalopoulos, Stelios and Xue, Melanie Meng},
	month = oct,
	year = {2021},
	pages = {1993--2046},
	file = {Michalopoulos and Xue - 2021 - Folklore.pdf:/Users/cbarrie6/Zotero/storage/A6BD433H/Michalopoulos and Xue - 2021 - Folklore.pdf:application/pdf},
}